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Describe A&P of the neuro system in children
First 3 to 4 weeks’ gestation: Infection, trauma, teratogens,
and malnutrition can cause physical defects and may affect normal CNS development.
Birth
Cranial bones not well developed and not fused: increased risk for fracture
Brain is highly vascular: increased risk for hemorrhage
Child: spinal cord is mobile, high risk for cervical spine injury
What factors are associated with neuro diseases in children?
Prematurity
Difficult birth
Infection during pregnancy
Falls
Recent trauma
What are common S&S related to neuro disease in children?
N/V
Headaches (frequent or persistent)
Changes in gait
Loss of motor function
Visual disturbances
Changes in LOC or confusion
Altered muscle tone
List the common laboratory and diagnostic tests used for neuro conditions
Lumbar puncture (LP)
Intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring
EEG = records electrical activity in brain to find abnormalities
Head and neck xray
Ultrasound
Fluoroscopy
Describe lumbar puncture
Withdrawal of CSF for analysis
Can measure pressure
Diagnoses hemorrhages, infections or any obstruction
Implications:
Help position properly and maintain it
Monitor respiratory status, LOC, HR, and pain level
Keep child flat for 1 hr
Describe a head and neck x ray
Takes an image of the skull and spine
Detects fractures and shows info about inc ICP and skull defects
Implication:
Allow parents to accompany to ease child’s worry so they can cooperate and stay still
Describe fluoroscopy
Continuous x rays showing live up to date images
Assesses cervical spine for instability during movement
Implications:
Try to get child cooperation
Describe an ultrasound when used for neuro conditions
Assesses intracranial hemorrhage in newborns and ventricular size
Better tolerated by children compared to CT or MRI
List the medications used to treat neuro conditions
Antibiotics
Anticonvulsants
Benzodiazepines
Analgesics
Osmotic diuretics
Corticosteroids
Describe antibiotics and nursing implications
Actions:
Treats bacterial meningitis and shunt infections
Kills and prevents bacterial growth
Implications:
Check for allergies
Monitor serum levels for therapeutic levels
Follow prescription
Describe anticonvulsants and nursing implications
Action:
Dec nerve hyperexcitability
Treats and prevents seizures
Implications:
Seizure precautions and activity
Monitor drug interactions and adverse effects
Stopping abruptly = precipitate seizures or status epilepticus
Describe benzodiazepines and nursing implications
Minor sedative that prevent/stops seizures
Treats status epilepticus
Implications:
Diazepam = educate family how to administer rectal form to stop prolonged seizures
Monitor sedation level and cessation of seizure activity
Describe analgesics and nursing implications
Block pain impulse
Helps avoid inc ICP
Implications:
Monitor for pain improvement, sedation, neuro status and resp status w/ narcotics
Describe osmotic diuretics and nursing implications
Inc plasma osmolarity = reduces ICP
Implications:
Monitor electrolytes, I&O, VS and s/s of inc ICP
Describe corticosteroids and nursing implications
Suppresses inflammation and normal immune response
Reduces cerebral edema
Implication:
Give oral doses w/ food
Dosage must be tapered before d/c
What are other treatments for neuro conditions?
Ventricular shunt placement
Hyperventilation
Physical, occupational, or speech therapies (PT/OT/ST)
External ventricular drainage (EVD)
Ventricular tap
Vagal nerve stimulator
Ketogenic diet (high fat, low carb)
Describe ventricular shunt placement
Drains excess CSF from the brain into another part of the body to relieve pressure and improve brain function
Use: for hydrocephalus, increased ICP
Implications:
Monitor for s/s of inc ICP
Monitor neuro status, LOC, VS, infection
Describe hyperventilation when used for neuro conditions
Hyperventilation inc RR & pH to calm pt
Deceases PaCO2 = vasoconstriction to decrease ICP
Use: for inc ICP
Implication:
Monitor ABGs, s/s of inc ICP, pulse ox
Describe an external ventricular drainage
Temp catheter to drain CSF from the ventricles = typically used in surgery
Use: for shunt infections, treats acute hydrocephalus, meningitis
Implication:
Monitor for s/s of inc ICP, LOC, level of collection container when drain is unclamped
Describe a ventricular tap
Drains CSF and dec ICP
Use: for inc ICP
Implication:
Monitor LOC and neuro status
Describe vagal nerve stimulator
Provides stimulation to the vagal nerve
Use: for short/long term seizure management in children 12+
Implication:
Monitor for s/s of infection and seizure activity
Describe a ketogenic diet
High fat, low carb
Use: prevents, controls, and reduces seizures
Implications:
Monitor I&O’s, seizure activities, growth and nutritional status
What are prenatal risk factors for neuro conditions?
Prematurity
Maternal drug or alcohol use during pregnancy
Maternal infection during pregnancy
Maternal ingestion of teratogens
Fetal malnutrition in utero
What are the common types of seizures?
Infantile spasms
Absence
Tonic–clonic
Myoclonic
Atonic
Simple partial
Complex partial
Status epilepticus
Describe infantile spasms
Occurs btw 3-12 months
Peaks at 3-7 months
Arms and legs flail up in clusters or head nods repeatedly
Describe absence seizures
Causes you to blank out or stare into space for a few seconds
May go unrecognized or mistaken for inattentiveness due to subtle change
Describe tonic clonic seizures
Involves a loss of consciousness and violent muscle contractions = two phases in total
Causes cyanosis due to apnea, saliva pools due to inability to swallow, tongue biting
Describe myoclonic seizures
Brief, involuntary muscle jerks that can affect any part of the body
Describe atonic seizures
Sudden and brief loss of muscle tone, causing person to fall or slump forward
Can result in injury related to fall
Describe simple partial seizures
Affects a specific area of the brain without causing LOC = pt can rmr event
Describe complex partial seizures
Causes a loss of awareness or consciousness
Describe status epilepticus
A life-threatening medical emergency characterized by prolonged or recurrent seizures that do not stop on their own
Longer than 5 mins or multiple seizures without regaining consciousness btw them
Treatment:
ABCs, anticonvulsants, check BG levels and electrolytes
List the common types of structural defects
Neural tube defects
Microcephaly (abnormally small head)
Arnold–Chiari malformation
Hydrocephalus
Intracranial arteriovenous malformation
Craniosynostosis
Describe neural tube defects
Affect the brain and spinal cord, causes defects = spina bifida
An opening in the spine remains open and does not close like it should
Describe microcephaly
Abnormally small head = more than 3 standard deviations below mean for age and sex of infant
Results in intellectual disability due to lack of functioning brain tissue
Describe Arnold–Chiari malformation
Where the lower part of the brain pushes down into the spinal canal
Associated w/ hydrocephalus and myelomeningocele (severe form of spina bifida = part of spinal cord and nerves are contained in a sac which is visible in the back)
Describe hydrocephalus
Extra CSF in the ventricles of the brain
Caused by an imbalance in the production and absorption of CSF
May see signs of ICP including increase in head size and loss of developmental milestones or changes in personality in older children
May require surgical intervention to relieve pressure with a ventricular shunt (temporary or permanent)
Describe intracranial arteriovenous malformation
Occurs when arteries in the brain connect directly to nearby veins without having the normal small vessels (capillaries) between them
Increased risk of hemorrhage
Describe craniosynostosis
Where the bones of the skull fuse together prematurely, before the brain has finished growing = neuro complications
What are the different types of infectious disorders of the neuro system?
Bacterial meningitis
Aseptic meningitis (viral)
Encephalitis
Reye syndrome (rare)
Describe bacterial meningitis
Inflammation of the membranes (meninges) that cover the brain and spinal cord, caused by a bacterial infection
Describe aseptic meningitis
Inflammation of the membranes (meninges) that cover the brain and spinal cord, without the presence of bacteria or other identifiable infectious organisms
Usually viral
Describe encephalitis
Inflammation of the brain, can be due to bacterial or viral infection
Can be mild to life threatening
Describe Reye syndrome (rare)
Serious condition that causes brain swelling, liver failure, and death in a few hrs if not treated
Describe intracranial pressure (ICP)
CNS has a dynamic balance of fluid (called CSF) that bathes the brain and spinal cord at a specific pressure called intracranial pressure (ICP)
Elevated ICP is a sign of a neurologic disorder
Possible causes: head trauma, birth trauma, hydrocephalus, infection, brain tumors
Describe Cushing’s Triad
Signs that indicate increased ICP
Three classic signs:
HTN, Bradycardia, and Irregular respirations = typically decreased, bradypnea
Medical emergency = if left untreated can result in brain herniation and death
What are early signs of increased ICP?
Change in LOC (drowsy, irritable, confused)
Headache (worse in the morning)
Projectile vomiting without nausea
Blurred vision
Sunset eyes (eyes deviate downward)
What are late signs of increased ICP?
Cushing’s Triad
Fixed, dilated pupils (no response to light)
Decerebrate posturing (severe brainstem damage)
Decreased response to pain
What are the S&S of a shunt infection?
Elevated vital signs
Poor feeding
Vomiting
Decreased responsiveness
Seizure activity
Signs of local inflammation along the shunt tract
What are the common causes of head trauma in children?
Falls
Motor vehicle accidents
Sport injuries
Pedestrian and bicycle accidents
Child abuse
What are causes of nonaccidental head trauma?
Violent shaking: shaken baby syndrome (SBS)
Blows to the head
Intentional cranial impacts against the wall, furniture, or the floor
Describe acute stroke in children
Ischemic or hemorrhagic types
Risk factors in children are different than in adults
Same S&S
Weakness on one side or hemiplegia
Facial droop
Slurred speech
Speech deficits
What do we observe in a child with a neuro condition?
LOC
VS
Head, face, and neck
Cranial nerve function
Motor and sensory function
Reflexes
Increased ICP
How do you manage disturbed sensory perception?
Assess for any changes
Monitor child for risk of injury due to changes in sensory perception
Notify MD or NP
Assist child to learn adaptive methods to live with permanent changes (ex: use of eyeglasses) and maximize use of intact senses
Provide familiar sounds (voices, music)
Describe the eye opening portion of the pediatric glascow coma scale (GCS)
Eyes open:
Spontaneously = 4
To speech = 3
To pain = 2
None = 1
Describe the motor response portion of the peds GCS
Obeys commands = 6
Localizes pain = 5
Flexion withdrawal = 4
Flexion abnormal = 3
Extension = 2
None = 1
Describe the response to auditory or verbal stimulus portion of the peds GCS
< 2 years
Smiles, listens, follows = 5
Cries, consolable = 4
Inappropriate, persistent cry = 3
Agitated, restless = 2
None = 1
Tracheal tube = T
>2 years
Oriented = 5
Confused = 4
Inappropriate words = 3
Incomprehensible words = 2
None = 1
Tracheal tube = T
Describe the five states of consciousness
Full consciousness: a&o x4, and exhibits age-appropriate behaviors
Confusion: disorientation exists; alert but responds inappropriately to questions
Obtunded: limited responses to the environment and falls asleep unless stimulation is provided
Stupor: only responds to vigorous stimulation
Coma: cannot be aroused, even with painful stimuli
What are closed head injuries?
Nonpenetrating injury to the brain but skull is hit hard
Can happen with an accident or intentional injury
How do we promote child and family teaching?
Assess child’s and family’s willingness to learn
Provide family with time to adjust to diagnosis
Repeat information
Teach in short sessions
Gear teaching to a level of understanding for the child and family
Provide reinforcement and rewards
Use multiple modes of learning involving many senses