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What is this? What does it represent? Green spike circled in blue
P wave, represents atrial depolarization and atrial contraction
What is this? What does it represent?
PR interval
Atria contract and relex
At end: ventricles depolarize
What is this? What does it represent? red circled in blue
QRS complex
Ventricular depolarization
What is this? What does it represent?
QT interval
Length of time required for ventricles to complete contraction and start to relax
What is this? What does it represent?
T wave
represents repolarization of ventricles
What is this? What does it represent?
Depolarization of cardiac muscle
NA+ in
K+ out
Ca2+ in
Heart signaled to contract
What is this? What does it represent?
Repolarization of cardiac muscle
Ca2+ out
K+ in
Heart signaled to rest
What is systole?
heart muscles contract and pump blood out of the heart and into the body
What is diastole?
the phase of the heartbeat when the heart muscle relaxes and allows the chambers to fill with blood.
What is this? (cardiac tissue histology)
Intercalated disks
What is this?
Myocardium (of L ventricle)
What is this?
Superior vena cava
What is this?
Inferior vena cava
What is this?
Right atrium
What is this?
Tricuspid valve
What is this?
R ventricle
What is this?
Pulmonary (semilunar) valve
What is this?
Pulmonary trunk
What is this?
Pulmonary arteries
What is this?
L atrium
What is this?
Pulmonary veins
What is this?
Bicuspid (mitral) valve
What is this?
L ventricle
What is this?
Aortic (semilunar) valve
What is this?
Aorta (ascending)
What is this?
Aortic arch
What is this?
Descending aorta
What is this?
Pectinate muscles
What is this?
Trabeculae carnae
What is this?
Papillary muscles
What is this?
Chordae tendineae
What is this?
Interventricular septum
What is this?
Interatrial septum
What is this?
Moderator band
Why is the left side of the heart bigger?
because it needs to pump blood throughout the entire body, left side leads to systemic circulation
What are the parts of the heart wall?
Epicardium/visceral pericardium
Myocardium
Endocardium
Describe the flow of blood through the heart
Blood come into body from superior/inferior vena cava. Blood vesses serving myocardium come in from coronary sinus
Blood enterrs right atrium
Flow through right AV valve/tricuspid valve into R ventricle
Flow from R ventricle to pulmonary semilunar valve
Flow into pulmonary trunk, then pulmonary circut (head to lungs)
O2 rich blood comes to heart through pulmonary veins
Pulmonary veins → L atria
L atria blood goes to L AV valve (bicuspid/mitral valve)
Blood enters L ventricle
L ventricle pumps/ejects to systemic circut through aortic semilunar valve
Leaves through aorta, blood transported to rest of the body
Describe the flow of blood through coronary arteries
L coronary artery
Supplies blood to L part of heart
R coronary artery
Supplies blood to R atrium and R/L ventricles
Coronary arteries travel thru epicardium that surronds heart
Supply blood to heart muscle
Describe the flow of blood through cardiac veins
1. Great cardiac vein
Drains the anterior portion of the heart and runs alongside the left anterior descending artery, emptying into the coronary sinus.
2. Middle cardiac vein:
Drains the posterior part of the heart, accompanying the posterior descending artery to the coronary sinus.
3. Small cardiac vein:
Drains the right atrium and ventricle and also empties into the coronary sinus. Blood from these veins ultimately returns to the right atrium via the coronary sinus.
What is the structure/function of the heart skeleton?
Fibrous tissue that supports heart between the atria and ventricles
Why do AV valves close
Pressure in the ventricles exceed pressure in the atria. Prevent backflow of blood. Happens during systole
Why do semilunar valves close
Pressure in ventricles less than aorta and pulmonary artery. Prevents backflow. Happens during diastole
Structural/functional characteristics of cardiac muscle cells
Striated appearance due to the organized arrangement of myofilaments
Involuntary control, regulated by the autonomic nervous system.
Intercalated discs: Specialized junctions that connect adjacent cells, allowing for synchronized contractions and communication through gap junctions.
Highly oxidative, able to utilize various energy sources, which supports continuous contraction without fatigue.
What is the conducting system of the heart?
specialized cardiac muscle cells that generate and transmit electrical impulses, controlling the heart's rhythm and coordination of contractions.
sinoatrial (SA) node, atrioventricular (AV) node, bundle of His, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers.
What is auto rhythmicity in cardiac muscle?
The ability of certain cardiac muscle cells to generate spontaneous action potentials without external stimulation
What is the pacemaker potential?
a gradual depolarization of the membrane potential in cardiac pacemaker cells before they reach the threshold for firing action potentials
Caused by influx of sodium
Gradual decrease of potassium
Why is a long refractory period important in cardiac muscle?
The long refractory period in cardiac muscle prevents sustained contractions, allowing the heart to fill with blood effectively between beats. It ensures that each contraction is followed by a period of relaxation, maintaining efficient pumping.
What is the cardiac cycle, and what phases does it include?
The cardiac cycle is the series of events that occur during one heartbeat, encompassing phases of contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole)
Atrial systole
Ventricular systole
Atrial diastole
Ventricular diastole
What is mean arterial pressure? (MAP)
Average pressure of blood in the artereis. Force driving blood into vessels serving tissues
MAP = CO x PR
What is cardiac output (CO)?
The volume of blood the heart pumps per minute. Indicates how effectively the heart is delivering blood to the tissues.
CO = SV x HR
What is intrinsic regulation of the heart?
heart's ability to regulate its own rhythm and rate through the conducting system, particularly the SA node, and intrinsic properties of cardiac muscle cells.
Three types of extrinsic regulation of the heart.
Neural regulation
Hormonal regulation
Chemical regulation
Explain neural regulation
Sympathertic NS increases HR
Parasympathetic NS decreases HR
Explain hormonal regulation
Epinephrine/norepinephrine increase HR + contractility
Chemical regulation
Changes in blood chemistry/ion concentration
How does a change in pH affect the function of the heart?
Decreased pH = decreased cardiac output
How does change in CO2 affect heart function?
HR goes up with higher concentrations of CO2
What is albumin produced by?
The liver
Characteristics of albumin
Creates viscosity
Impact on osmotic pressure and maintains tonicity
Used as transport protein
58% of plasma
Characteristics of globulins
Transport proteins
Antibodies
38% of plasma
Characteristics of fibrinogen
Insoluable fiber
Converted to fibrin in clotting process
Fibrin is soluable
Fibrin helps create clot
4% of plasma
What are the proteins found in plasma?
Albumin, globulin, fibrinogen
Which WBCs are granulocytes?
Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
Which WBCs are agranulocytes?
Lymphocytes, monocytes
Describe RBC production (Erythropoesis)
Hypoxia detected in kidneys
Kidneys iincrease secretion of erythropoietin (EPO)
EPO increase RBC production in red bone marrow
RBC increases, O2 transport increases, more O2 sent to tissues of body
What happens to Heme after its broken down?
iron is released. Non-iron converted into biliverdin → bilirubin → added to bile → pass into feces
What is diapedesis?
Leaving the blood by becoming thin/elongating and moving between or through endothelial cells of capillaries
What is chemotaxis?
Attraction to/movement towards foreign materials or damaged cells
What are the characteristics of neutrophils?
Stay in circulation for 10-12hrs
Increase inflammation
Last 1-2 days
Very active and phagocytic
55-70% WBC
Granulocyte
What are the characteristics of eosinophils?
Help with allergic reactions
Destroy parasites
Granulated
1-4% WBC
Elevated eosinophil count indicates possible parasitic worm infection
What are the characteristics of basophils?
Granulated
Release histamine to increase inflammation
Release heparin to inhibit blood clotting
Least common WBC
0.5-1% WBC
What are the characteristics of lymphocytes?
Agranulocyte
Produced in red bone marrow from lymphoid stem cells
Responsible for antibody production
B cells
T cells
NK cells
20-40% WBC
What are the characteristics of monocytes?
Agranulocytes
Large, spherical
Become macrophages after leaving blood
2-8% of WBC
Describe the process of hemostasis
Positive feedback loop
Vascular spasm
Platelet plug formation
Coagulation (clotting)
Describe vascular spasms
Decrease of blood loss by constricting inner ends of blood vessel
Dialtes blood vessel so that more cells are attracted to stie of injury
Makes blood vessel sticky so that platelets can more readily attach
Describe platelet plugging
Cells come in contact with collagen
Release chemicals and clotting factors to create chemotaxis
Detects the damaged site and attaches platelets to blood vessel
Describe coagulation
The process resulting in a blood clot.
Intrinsic/extrinsic/common pathways
Intrinsic pathway
Chemicals inside blood/damage to blood vessel
Factor XII to factor X (simplified)
Extrinisc pathway
Tissue damage
Factor III + calcium to factor X (simplified)
Common pathway
Creates the actual blood clot
Factor X
Prothrombinae
Thrombin
Fibrinogen
Fibrin
Factor XIII
Clot
Steps of the common pathway
Factor X
Prothrombinae
Thrombin
Fibrinogen
Fibrin
Factor XIII
Clot
What does antithrombin do?
Anticoagulant. Produced by the liver and slowly inactivates thrombin
What does prostacyin do?
Anticoagulanat. Inhibits release of coagulating factors from platelets
What does histamine do?
Promote inflammation
What does heparin do?
Anticoagulant. Keeps clotting from occuring
What hormone helps create RBC?
Erythropoietin (EPO)
What hormone helps create WBC?
Leukopoietin
What hormone helps create platelets?
Thrombopoietin (TPO)
What is this?
Erythrocyte
What is this?
Thrombocyte
What is this? (red circles)
Leukocye
What are these?
Granular leukocytes
What is this?
Neutrophil
What is this?
Eosionophil
What is this?
Basophil
What are these?
Agranular leukocytes
What is this?
Monocyte
What is this?
Lymphocyte
White blood cells from most to least common mnemotic
Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas
Neutrophil → 60-70% of all WBCs
Lymphocyte → 20-25%
Monocyte → 3-8%
Eosinophil → 2-4%
Basophil → 0.5-1%
a
What is this?
Internal carotid a.
What is this?
Internal jugular v
What is this?
External carotid a
