Marine/Freshwater Botany (Info until Test #1)

How do plants make gametes?

Through mitosis, meaning that the parents must be haploid.

(Random Sampling) With vs Without Replacement

With replacement - a subject is eligible to be selected even after being selected previously

Without replacement - once a subject is selected cannot be selected again

How do we combat entropy?

The input of energy counters entropy, sunlight is the constant input of energy into our biosphere that helps counter entropy

Is energy created through photosynthesis?

No, energy cannot be created or destroyed, photosynthesis creates energy-containing molecules like ATP instead.

Domains of Life (3):

Archaea(bacteria), (Eu)Bacteria, Eukarya

Kingdoms (6):

Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia

Kingdom Autotroph/Heterotroph (A/H):

Archaea - H/A, most chemo synthesize, extremophiles

Eubacteria - H/A, cyanophyta

Protista - H/A, grab bag kingdom

Fungi - Fully H, major decomposers, breakdown organic matter into ATP

Animalia -Fully H

Plantae - Fully A

T/F All autotrophs take up inorganic nutrients:

True! All autotrophic organisms take up inorganic nutrients.

Respiration

Oxidation of organic molecules to yield ATP

T/F There are 3 carbon fixation processes on earth

False! There are only 2 carbon fixation processes on earth: Photosynthesis, and chemosynthesis.

Photosynthesis

Fixation of CO2 into organic matter (sugar/carbs) using solar energy.

(The purpose of photosynthesis is carbon fixation)

T/F: Oxygen is a waste product of photosynthesis

True! Oxygen comes from the breakdown of water, so it is a waste/byproduct and not the main purpose of photosynthesis.

Chemosynthesis

Energy derived from the oxidation of a reduced molecule is used to fix CO2 into organic matter (CH2O)

(Only done in bacteria)

Primary Productivity

The generation of biomass through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis

(Productivity = growth of organisms)

Secondary Productivity

The generation of biomass through the consumption of primary productivity

(Generally used term for the growth of heterotrophs)

Phyla of Seaweeds

Chlorophyta (green pigments)

Rhodophyta (can be many colors but mainly red pigments)

Phaeophyta (brown pigments)

Domain and kingdom of Algae

Eukarya, and Protista.

Prokaryotic Membranes

Don't have membrane bound organelles so they have plasma membranes for cellular functions.

Where does photosynthesis take place?

In the plasma membrane of autotrophs.

Organization of Life

1. Atoms -

2.Molecules - some can diffuse thru cell membranes

3. Organelles - functioning subunits of the cell

4. Cell - smallest unit of life, plasma membrane

5. Tissue - a grouping of cells for a common function

6. Organs - (in plants): leaves, roots, stems, flowers, cones

7. Organ systems - (in plants): "Shoot system" - leaves, stems, flowers, cones. "Root system" - roots and stems.

8. Organism - Individual, capable of reproduction

9. Population - Individuals of a same species in a given area

10. Community - All the interacting populations in a given area

11. Ecosystem - All the communities and their abiotic factors

12. Biosphere - (issues) : climate change, plate tectonics

T/F Flowers and cones are modified leaves

True! Flowers and cones are series of modified leaves only present during reproduction

Most important abiotic factors

Light and nutrients

Cork

Outermost layer of bark, coated with suberin (wax).

Cell Theory (19th century)

The first micrograph depicting a cork cell supported this theory

1. Organisms are composed of at least one cell

2. The cell is the basic unit of life

3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells (important)

Spontaneous generation

Hypothesis before cell theory that suggested cells spontaneously generate (Ex: mold in milk comes from nowhere, it just happens)

Disproving spontaneous generation (Louis Pasteur)

Boiled broth in sanitized containers, one had an s-shaped neck and the other did not, they were both left open and the s-shaped neck grew nothing and the other did, concluding that microorganisms are everywhere even the air.

Taxonomy

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, species, variety

(all except species and variety are to be capitalized)

Angiospermae

Phylum of flowering plants, (synonyms: Magnoliaphyta, Anthophyta)

Family ending

Often "eae". (Grass family synonyms: Poaceae and Graminae)

Chlorophyll A

The dominant pigment in photosynthesis

Chlorophyll B-F

Accessory pigments in photosynthesis

T/F The cuticle of a plant is a tissue

False! The cuticle is NOT a tissue, it is actually the wax that is embedded in the epidermis of plants. (prevents dessication)

Why did flagellated sperm develop in plants?

Land plants need flagellated sperm for reproduction (Liverworts-->Ferns have flagellated sperm), requires water to swim to other plants.

Stomata

Pores in the epidermis used to regulate gas exchange (CO2 in Oxygen out)

How do plants transpire?

They take in water and go through a controlled loss of said water through their stomata.Wha

Lycophytes

First living vascular plants.

"Phyll" meaning

Of or pertaining to leaves

Lignin

A bigger/stronger carb than cellulose, evolving lignin allowed for the evolution of vascular tissue

(lignified = embedded with lignin)

What plants have true stems roots and leaves?

Vascular plants have true stems roots and leaves

Gymnosperms

Have naked seeds (no fruit)

Seed in plant reproduction

Seeds= embryo of plant

Importance of evolving seeds and pollen

It is hard for sperm to swim in between plants, the evolution of pollen and seeds allowed for dispersal through wind and led to the huge spread/domination of plants and animals on land.

T/F Sperm forms before pollination

False! Sperm only forms after pollination

What allowed the development of wood in plants?

The evolution of vascular tissue and lignin allowed for the development of wood in plants.

What plants have wood?

Only angiosperms and gymnosperms

Production of flower/fruit importance

Led to the greatest speciation of plants and animals, some animals even co-evolved for pollination.

Bryophyta

mosses, haploid, make gametes through mitosis, have a diploid generation that has stalks

Pteridophyta

ferns, diploid, releases spores which are made and contained in sporangia. A collection of sporangia (sorus) can be used to identify fern species.

How are Sori organized?

Sporangia --> Sorus --> Sori

Sporangia

Specialized spore-bearing structures in plants, some have rows of cells that dry and shrink and forcefully rip open to launch spores away from the parent plant.

Common Names for Angiosperms and conifers

A: deciduous, broad leaved, hardwoods

C: softwoods, needle leaved, evergree

Embryophyta

Tracheophyta

Spermatophyta

Embryophyta - land plants: moss, fern, conifer, flowering

Tracheophyta - vascular plants: fern, conifer, flowering

Spermatophyta - seed bearing: conifer and flowering

What are the 4 phyla of plants?

Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Coniferophyta, Anthophyta

If our earths tends towards entropy (disorder), how does it maintain itself?

It maintains itself due to the constant input of energy from the sun

The 4 macromolecules of life

Carbs (CH2O), lipids, proteins, nucleotides

What defines organic matter

Organic: C-containing molecule, always has CH bonds, produced (NOT as waste) through a biological process.

Examples: (CH20, proteins, lipids - C based)

(Proteins and nucleotides - N based)

What defines inorganic matter

Inorganice: Molecules that are not organic

Examples ( C based: C02, CH4, diamond)

(N-based: N2/nitrogen gas, N03/nitrates, soil, water, salts and metals)

Saccharides

Unit structure of carbohydrates (Triose-3C, Pentose -5C,etc)

Monosaccharides

Smallest saccharide, combine to make other larger saccharides

(glucose,fructose,ribose,xylose)

Disaccharide

Made of 2 monosaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose)

Polysaccharide

Examples: cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, starch

T or F: Starch is the key storage form in plants.

True! Starch is the key storage form in plants, it stains purple in micrographs

What does "amylo" mean

Of or relating to starch

T or F: Plants only take up water for hydration

False! Plants take nutrients dissolved in the water they absorb

Early study supporting the idea that water provides nutrients to plants:

Planted a 5lb willow branch in 200lbs of soil, covered the soil from the air and watered the plant for 5 years.

Results: soil lost 20oz whereas the tree gained 169lbs, conclusion led them to understand that plants get nutrients from water not directly from the soil itself.

T or F: Cell walls are polar

True! All carbohydrates are polar, so seeing as the cell wall is made of cellulose, this means that cell walls are polar!

What enables adhesion and cohesion?

H-bonds between molecules (NOT within the molecules themselves).

(Cohesion-water sticks together in a droplet)

(Adhesion - water is sucked into a paper towel and the other molecules of water follow it)

Plasma membrane (PM)

Contains protoplasm

Main jobs is to be selectively permeable (thanks to the phospholipid bilayer)

Phospholipid description

Has a 3-carbon head (glycerol), and two fatty acid tails, forms a phospholipid bilayer with other phospholipids and proteins

(glycerol is polar while the tails are non-polar)

What can enter the plasma membrane? (w/wo proteins)

With proteins: polar molecules, large molecules, ions

Without proteins: small nonpolar molecules and water

Middle lamella (ML)

Thin layer of pectinate that binds together 1° cell walls of adjacent cells

Cell wall (CW)

Rigid outer layer surrounding the PM of cells in plants, algea, fungi and bacteria.

Fxn: protection (mechanical, disease), strengthen, filter, cell shape, prevent cytolysis (cell rupture from osmosis), turgor pressure, helps retain water

(The cell wall also allows for water storage due to cellulose being exceptional at holding water so the CW is saturated with water)

How does cell division happen with a CW?

Cell plate forms in the center of the cell and joins PM to PM, this separates the cytoplasm into 2 daughter protoplasts*

Where do the CW precursors come from?

The golgi makes the CW precursors which are delivered to the cell with vesicles.

(1.Cell plate forms, 2. Middle lamella, 3.CW)*

How does cellulose form?

Glucose monomer --> glucose chain --> elementary fibril --> microfibril -->macrofibril --> cellulose fiber

(Like a rope)

How does the CW form from cellulose fibers?

They form from H-bonding between cellulose fibers in a hatched formation.

(Normally the CW matrix is made of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, and glycoproteins)

CW constituents in fruit bearing vs woody plants

Fruit bearing: only 5% lignin, and 40% pectin (fruit walls)

Woody: 15-30% lignin (wood), 40-50% cellulose

Different types of waterproofing in plants

1. Suberin - waterproofs cork and other cells, (Casparian strip in endodermis)

2. Cutin - found in the cuticle of the epidermis (cutin is NOT a tissue layer)

Lignin micrograph

CW constituents of microalgea

Dinoflagellates - cellulose

Diatoms - SiO2

Coccolithophores - CaCO3

CW constituents of fungi, eubacteria and archea

F: Chitin (true fungi have no cellulose)

E: Peptidoglycan

A: Pseudopeptidoglycan

Gram positive vs gram negative

Positive: thicker peptidoglycan

Negative: thinner peptidoglycan ~

Two types of plant CW types

1° - all plants have it, capable of expanding (via vacuole), SMALLER than 2°

2° - mature cell, found inside of 1° CW, BIGGER than 1°

What builds the 2° CW?

The PM builds the 2° CW, so the 2° CW and PM must be next to each other.

Plasmodesmata

cytoplasmic connections that are continuous through the 1° and 2° CW, they regulate the passage of fluids and dissolved substances

Different plastids and their fxn (5 total)

1. Chloroplasts - photosynthesis

2. Chromoplasts - pigments

3. Amyloplasts - starch (Most abundant)

4. Elaioplasts - lipids/oil

5. Proteinoplasts- protein

(They all store things)

Vacuole (structure and fxn)

-Makes up greater than 90% of cell volume,

-tonoplast - vacuolar membrane

-Fxn - maintains turgor (condition of having turgor pressure), osmoregulation

temp storage - salts, ions, pigments and waste

What is a solution made of?

Solute and solvent

Tonicity

Ability of a sltn to make water move relative to another sltn

The three types of tonicity

Hypertonic - net H20 in (salty cells in freshwater)

Hypotonic - Net H20 out (freshwater cells in salt water)

Isotonic - Not net H20 movement

What type of tonicity do roots have?

Roots need to be hypertonic in order to absorb H20

Osmosis

Flow of water to its area of high conc to an area of low conc across a semipermeable membrane

How do cell walls affect osmosis?

The osmotic pressure will continue to inc in the cell until it reaches maximum turgor and water can no longer enter

Turgid cell vs Flaccid cell

T - inc turgor pressure (TP), inc H2O pressure against cell wall, NO cytolysis

F - decrease TP, plasmolysis possible (cell death from low water caused by PM pulling away from the cell due to lack of water)

What are the functions of turgor pressure?

1. No cytolysis

2. Drive cell elongation (water balloon in a box)

3. Stomata regulation

4. Body upright against gravity (tissue rigidity)

5. Vascular transport - sugar

6. Organ movement

7. Some seed dispersal

Know verbally and visually how to describe the differences between monocot and dicot root XS.

Know verbally and visually how to describe the differences between monocot and dicot stem XS.

Cotyledon

Embryonic leaf

3 tissue systems

Dermal, vascular, ground

T or F : In angiosperms, only dicots have wood and bark

True! In angiosperms, only dicots have wood and bark