AP Euro Unit 7 - Nationalism and Imperialism

Congress of Vienna

Meeting to put Europe back together after Napoleon.

Concert of Europe (COE)

Members: Britain, France, Russia, Austria, Prussians

• Push conservatism and legitimacy

• Ignore liberalism and stop it from manifesting

• Ignore nationalism and stop it from manifesting

  • Nationalism is a problem for COV. It causes revolution. Loyalty to the nation and not the monarch.

GOAL = Do not let anything like the French Revolution happen again!

Greece

Revolutionized in 1821-1829

France and Belgium

Revolutionized in 1830

The Greek War of Independence

1821: Series of revolts by Greek nationalists due to major religious/cultural differences.

COE is conflicted…

• Don’t want to encourage uprising, don’t want to encourage nationalism… but… Austria & Russia have bad blood with the Ottomans for centuries. (forced proximity)

1827, COE decides it is time to get involved and the British, French and Russians each send their Navy to support Greek independence.

The Battle of Navarino

The big battle that pretty much decides it all in The Greek War of Independence. Led to the destruction of the Ottoman navy.

The London Protocol of 1830

Greece is officially recognized as an independent state under…

The Treaty of Constantinople

Established the first King of Greece.

Final choice: Otto I - son of King Ludwig of Bavaria

Otto I

From a neutral royal house. No threat to the balance of power -- 17, young and more likely to be influenced by COE, avoiding Greek civil war by selecting a non-Greek

Problems?

• He’s an outsider and the Greeks don’t love the choice. Ends up ruling as an absolute monarch and refuses to have a constitution… He was Catholic, not Greek Orthodox

  • Deposed in 1862

George I of Greece and Denmark

Seen as a neutral and uncontroversial choice. His Danish background meant he was not tied to any of the major power struggles in Greece, making him a neutral and widely accepted choice.

Belonged to the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg - his father was King Christian IX of Denmark

Quickly embraced Greek culture, learned the language, and worked to strengthen Greece’s institutions. He ruled for 50 years!!

Louis XVIII

• Kept the Napoleonic Code

• Embraced a slight form of democracy

• NOT an absolutist

• Conservative, but moderate

• Embraces the challenge that is France

Ultra-royalists

Who: Nobles that had fled during the revolution & Napoleonic era return to France

Wanted to restore the Old Regime and everything pre-revolution… -

• Feel like they have this authority because of the COV and COE

Charles X

Louis XVIII’s younger brother and next in line

Wanted to bring back absolutism and everything that goes with it.

• Wants to eliminate any right to vote

• Puts the clergy back in charge of education

• Closed the lycees

• Used tax money to pay nobles for land lost during the French Revolution

• Control the press

• Pretended like liberalism/nationalism wasn’t important -- couldn’t hurt him

In 1830, attempts to change voting laws to ensure future conservative victories.

French Revolution of 1830

Charles X abdicated the throne and flees to England (George IV King). France needs a new king!

• COE decide on a cousin of the King, a Bourbon (so it’s legitimate)

  • KING LOUIS-PHILIPPE

King Louis-Philippe

Takes on a fairly liberal agenda.

• Doubles the number of eligible voters.

• Ruled by the will of the people

• Colonial expansion in Algeria

• Remained friendly with the British

• Officially replaced the Bourbon Flag with the flag of the Revolution (French flag today)

Called the “Citizen King”

Revolution of 1848

King Louis-Philippe acts are symbolic and reform went unchanged.

• The income gap widens

• Working classes deteriorated

• 1846, there is an agricultural and industrial depression…

• Supporters of the 1830 revolution are very disappointed…

Cue → …

Belgian Independence

The Netherland & Belgium are joined together as a result of COV to act as a Buffer for France

It’s not a good match.

Netherlands: Protestant, speak Dutch, economy based on seafare/manufacturing

Belgium: Catholic, speak French, economy based in agriculture

Belgian Independence

Leopold I of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, becomes the first King of the Belgians. He is the uncle to Queen Victoria and Prince Albert (brother to Victoria’s mom and Albert’s dad)

The Belgians accept this offer because of his connection with the royal families across Europe.

Ten Days’ Campaign

The Netherlands tried to reconquer Belgium in 1831, but failed.

Liberals

Limited church and state, Republicanism [meaning they want a republic], civil liberties and economic freedom.

Nationalists

Care more about national unity based on common language, culture, religion, tradition

Radicals

Socialists [want socialism] and Democrats [want universal male suffrage].

French Revolution of 1848

1846, severe agricultural and industrial depression, ⅓ of workers in Paris were unemployed

1848, Louis-Philippe abdicated the throne and fled to Britain

Summer of 1848, there are bitter and bloody battles between working class individuals in the streets of Paris - Thousands killed and thousands deported to Algeria

French Revolution of 1848

End of 1848, a provisional government had ratified a new constitution and established the Second Republic of France.

They elected Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte as the President of the Second Republic. (Took the name Napoleon III)

Within four years, he declared himself Emperor… thus ending the Second Republic, and beginning the Second French Empire

Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte

President of the Second Republic.

• Within four years, he declared himself Emperor, ending the Second Republic, and beginning the Second French Empire

  • Took the name Napoleon III

Reigns until 1870, when he was ultimately captured in the Franco-Prussian War and killed

German Revolution of 1848

King Frederick William IV of Prussia agreed to work for a united Germany.

As a result of the protests and with the support of William IV, representatives from across Germany convened in Frankfurt to create a constitution and unify Germany under a constitutional monarchy

The Parliament was forced to disband and while unsuccessful it did pave the way for future conversation of German unity and… paving the way the blood and iron approach of Bismarck.

Frankfurt Parliament

Too many disagreements over what that actually looks like

• Supporters of a Grossdeutsch (Big German Solution) which included Austria

• Supporters of a Kleindeutsch (Small German Solution) which excluded Austria

The Parliament was forced to disband and while unsuccessful it did pave the way for future conversation of German unity and… paving the way the blood and iron approach of Bismarck.

Grossdeutsch

Big German Solution which included Austria

Kleindeutsch

Small German Solution which excluded Austria

Hungarians (Magyars)

The largest ethnic group in the Austrian Empire are the…

Louis Kossuth

Leader of the Hungarian liberals. Wanted commonwealth status. Keep Habsburg Monarch, but gain autonomy.

Austrian Revolution of 1848

Vienna, 1848 -- revolts begin and Klemens von Metternich is forced to resign and flee to England

April Laws 1848

Hungary was granted own legislature, separate national army, control over foreign policy and budget. Only tie with Austria was the monarchy.

Franz Joseph I

The April Laws were overturned and autocratic government was restored due to this leader... (1849)

• Thanks in part to Russian intervention by Czar Nicholas I

  • Why Russia? Too close for comfort, don’t want the Russians getting any ideas so best to put down revolts/liberal agenda in neighboring countries.

• In Bohemia, the Czechs also demanded own government, so this helped to squash dreams

Austrian Revolution of 1848

CONSEQUENCES:

• Failure to Achieve Lasting Reforms – Austria returned to a conservative, authoritarian system.

• Rise of Franz Joseph I – His rule (1848–1916) strengthened absolutist rule but set the stage for future nationalist conflicts.

• Growing Ethnic Tensions – The failure to grant autonomy to national groups fueled long-term nationalist movements, leading to future crises (including World War I).

• Weakened Austrian Influence in Germany – The revolution contributed to Prussia’s eventual dominance in German affairs, culminating in the unification of Germany in 1871.

1848 Revolutions

A transitory point from Romantic nationalism to Realism. People WANT change but… there isn’t a realistic plan of action in which to accomplish this. These issues will be revisited and in most cases corrected once the Romanticism phase is OVER.

The Crimean War (1853-1856)

Who: The Ottoman Empire, France, England, and House Savoy, from Piedmont-Sardinia (Northern Italy) vs. Russia

The Ottoman Empire

Background of The Crimean War:

• Been weakening and lost Greece. Was powerful, but it’s almost become too much to take one (expansion into Africa, Middle East)... Not able to keep up with Europe (IR/Capitalism)

• It was Islamic, but they allowed Christians to practice.

Russia

Background of The Crimean War:

• In the Ottoman Empire, the Balkan Peninsula + Moldova, and Romania, were orthodox Christians

• Saw themselves as the protectors of Orthodox Christianity… so they take advantage of the weakness of the Ottomans and declare war to “protect” Orthodox Christians…. (Similar justification for involvement with the Serbs leading into WWI)

Russia

Motives of The Crimean War:

• Interested in expansion?

• Dominance in the Black Sea?

• Control the Dardanelles, to then control/gain a foothold on the Mediterranean?

The Crimean War (1853-1856)

Russia declares war on the Ottomans.

COE:

• When one goes to war, the others are supposed to help.

• France and England react in a way Russia didn’t expect.

  • They said the Russians were upsetting the balance of power.

    • They were worried that the Russians would take ALL of the Ottoman Empire, and they would become too influential.

The Crimean War (1853-1856)

The Russians crush the Ottomans in the Black Sea.

France and England declare war on RUSSIA!

Austria is not happy with Russia. Austrians put up a buffer, forcing the fighting to move to the Crimean Peninsula

Concerned with influence over the Balkans (Pan-Slavism)

House Savoy, from Piedmont-Sardinia (Northern Italy) joins against Russia.

House Savoy, from Piedmont-Sardinia (Northern Italy)

Why?

Need to rebuild after the Austrians put them down in 1848. Want new alliances with powerful nations (England and France). They want to observe and learn how to fight.

Prime Minister Cavour influences this decision

This will be beneficial later on…

Prime Minister Cavour

Influences the Italian decision to join the Crimean War.

The Crimean War (1853-1856)

Russia is beaten

• Russia was NOT industrialized and doing what the rest of Europe was doing.

• Military wasn’t nationalistic.

France and England have new weapons, tactics, technology.

• Discovered that Russia is NOT powerful. They are behind the times.

  • Gets rid of the reputation that the Russians can’t be beat (Napoleon couldn’t beat the Russians)

This is why Czar Alexander II starts reforms after the Crimean War

The Crimean War (1853-1856)

Peace process hosted by Napoleon III

• 1856 Treaty of Paris

  • No more Russian ships on the Black Sea allowed

  • Russia is weakened, and now everyone knows it

  • The Ottoman Empire is recognized as a legitimate power (is this true tho?) by the other European nations and will be included in some future events (WWI) and then promptly collapse…

1856 Treaty of Paris

No more Russian ships on the Black Sea allowed

Russia is weakened, and now everyone knows it

The Ottoman Empire is recognized as a legitimate power (is this true tho?) by the other European nations and will be included in some future events (WWI) and then promptly collapse…

The Crimean War (1853-1856)

Why is it important?

• Britain and France are working together

• Russia and Austria are no longer working together

• First modern war in Europe

• Improving guns = improving medical practices

  • Florence Nightingale

Florence Nightingale

British nurse that organized and changed the way soldiers were taken care of…

• Established standards to save soldiers (focus on sanitation/hygiene)

• “The Lady with the Lamp”

• Wrote a manual 1859, basis for modern nursing

• Consulted during the American Civil War about how to best manage field hospitals

The Crimean War (1853-1856)

• The Concert of Europe is OVER.

  • No more team of powerful leaders to align and put down the LIBERALS and the NATIONALISTS

    • So now…. They are able to rise up and achieve what they had been trying to achieve in the Revolutions of 1848

      • Italy united, Germany units, changes across Europe; different alliance systems and eventually WWI

The Crimean War

The Middle East today was defined by this…

• France and England are going to float loans to the Ottoman Empire

  • By the time we get to WWI, the Ottomans couldn’t pay it back… so the Ottomans join the Germans (to defeat them and not have to pay them back)

    • The Allies win and the Ottoman Empire is carved up and middle east countries are established in mandates after WWI by the Allies

Nationalism

Associated with liberalism and unity, but starts to do more to divide countries, than it does to unite. Will cause empires to break.

Panama Canal Scandal

France had great success building the Suez Canal (1859-1869), but the French will lose control of the canal to the British

Ferdinand de Lesseps, is the President of the company that oversees/makes plans for the construction, but the project is losing money

Panama Canal Scandal

All fell apart in 1892, US took over. Corruption is exposed. Everyone goes unpunished, including Ferdinand, but two Jews, get massive press coverage for being involved and “mismanaging” the funds. These two Jewish men were to focus of the media’s attention.

Panama Canal Scandal

Beginning of anti-semitic climate in France, all fueled by the media. Nationalist responses will now be, Jews are NOT part of the French nation.

Leading to an even greater scandal called the Dreyfus Affair.

Alfred Dreyfus

Captain in the French Military. From the portion of France called Alsace.

• Alsace taken by the Germans in the Franco -Prussian War

  • Does NOT consider himself German

    • 100% citizen of France

Dreyfus Affair 1894

German Embassy in Paris - discovered some French documents with French military secrets about weapons (espionage)

French intelligence agency looks into this and they suspect Dreyfus…. Why?

• Dreyfus is Jewish. Anti-semitic climate in France. Scapegoat.

  • He is absolutely innocent.

    • There is NO evidence against him.

The officers in the French military pin it against him, forge evidence and don’t even care to find out who actually did it.

Dreyfus Affair 1894

Alfred Dreyfus was tried.

Convicted of treason as a spy for Germany. (1894)

Sent to Devil’s Island Prison…

Where he was chained to his bed and spent YEARS there as an innocent man. Life sentence, but spent 5 years

Lieutenant Georges Picquart

Starts investigating on his own.

Realizes he can prove Dreyfus innocent through handwriting samples. Take this information to his superiors…

Demoted. Sent to North Africa to train troops. He is silenced.

Emile Zola

A writer, begins investigating. Concludes that Dreyfus is innocent.

Comes from money, so he purchases the front page of the newspaper and exposes military/government corruption and Dreyfus as INNOCENT

Tried for Libel. Flees to England for his own safety.

Anti-Dreyfusards

Hyper nationalism, anti-Semitic, conservative, “my country can’t do something like this”, this is just ONE person -- the state is more important, preserve the honor of the nation before the individual… (fascism?)

Dreyfusards

Liberal side, socialists, republicans, freeing an innocent man is WAY more important than protecting the reputation of the country/military

Dreyfus Affair 1894

He is found guilty again, despite evidence of a cover up. The President of France (Emile Loubet) gives him a presidential pardon and he goes free. In 1906, he was exonerated. He goes on to participate in WWI fighting for France.

One of the biggest scandals in French history.

Dreyfus Affair 1894

An early sign of what’s to come and it’s obviously going to get much worse with the Nazis .

Nationalism can be bad.

Theodor Herzl

Inspires, The Zionist movement (return to Jewish homelands). Many Jews start to return.

The Zionist movement will be even more important after WWII

Giuseppe Mazzini

Founded an organization called Young Italy, with a goal of creating a unified Italy.

Realpolitik

• Practical means to get to your objective.

  • Ends justify the means

  • Need one strong ruler for unification (Machiavellian)

  • Need a step by step plan (realistic)

  • Create a situation where everyone has to participate in the effort

King Victor Emmanuel II

King of Piedmont-Sardinia was different, he was a liberal monarch.

• House of Savoy. Allowed a Parliament. Some suffrage.

• He was truly Italian, not placed on the throne from another nation.

Count Camillo Cavour

The brains behind unification. Moderate liberal. Helps PD-S become strong: builds roads, canals, infrastructure

Piedmont-Sardinia get involved in the Crimean War? Random? No.

• Trying to create a relationship with powerful people (France)

  • Wants to call in favors and support from France

After success in the Crimean War, asks for a secret meeting with Napoleon III… wants French help

Giuseppe Garibaldi

Leading figure for Southern Italy: “Hero of Two Worlds”

• Sentenced to death after early failed revolutions but escaped to South America (Uruguay and Brazil)

• Participated in revolution movements in South America where he started the “red shirts”

HUGE proponent of democracy, republic, universal suffrage. Incredible military leader. Charismatic - more romantic tendencies

Austro-Prussian War

Austrians need to remove troops from Venice to fight the Prussians… Italians move in to Venice! 1866

Franco-Prussian War

French need to remove troops from Rome to fight the Prussians… Italians move in to Rome! Pope still retains spiritual authority. 1871

Italian Unification

Though politically unified, a great social and cultural gap separated the progressive, industrializing north and the stagnant, agrarian south.

Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch

Provided scientific evidence that microorganisms cause disease.

• Pasteurization: the growth of bacteria could be suppressed by heating

• This new knowledge helped reduce food poisoning

• Significant in reducing the mortality rates

Joseph Lister

Introduced antiseptic techniques using carbolic acid to sterilize surgical instruments and wounds, dramatically reducing infections.

• This dramatically resulted in fewer people dying from infection.

William Morton

Demonstrated the use of ether (a chemical that will sedate you) making surgeries more bearable and reducing patient suffering.

James Young Simpson

Introduced chloroform as an alternative anesthetic.

• Commonly used during childbirth, famously used by Queen Victoria

Bayer

Morphine was first extracted from opium in the early 19th century, leading to the development of pain management drugs.

Aspirin was synthesized by ___ in 1899, becoming a widely used anti-inflammatory and pain reliever.

• Can prevent your blood from clotting

Edward Jenner

Developed the smallpox vaccine in 1796, but its widespread adoption in the 19th century helped eradicate the disease.

Louis Pasteur

Later developed vaccines for rabies (1885) and anthrax (1881).

Robert Koch

Identified the bacteria responsible for tuberculosis (1882) and cholera (1883), advancing disease diagnosis and prevention.

Wilhelm Roentgen

Discovered X-rays, allowing for non-invasive internal imaging.

Gregor Mendel

Discovered the basic principles of heredity, which later became the foundation of genetics in medicine.

Emmeline Pankhurst

Fought for voting rights.

• Engaged in hunger strikes, window-smashing, and even arson to draw attention to their cause.

• Frequently arrested and imprisoned

The Oscar Wilde trial

Highlighted legal persecution. Was arrested and charged with gross indecency under the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1885.

Served three years in prison, including two years of hard labor. Eventually released and exiled in France

Homosexuality was not decriminalized in the UK until 1967

The Elementary Education Act

Britain: Made primary education more accessible. By 1900 in England, all 5-12 year olds were required to attend primary school and it was almost entirely free.

Jules Ferry Laws

France: Made education free, secular, and compulsory for children.

Otto von Bismarck

Brains behind unification (like Cavour) - born 1815. From a Junker Family (Prussian nobility). Raised a conservative… speaking out against liberalism and nationalism

In 1861, selected as the Chancellor of Germany (Prime Minister) Chancellors are selected by the Kaiser, not elected. Immediately oversaw reforms to improve the Prussian military

Like Cavour -- believed in Realpolitik -- practical means to get to your objective.

“Great questions of the day will not be decided by speeches and resolution… but by blood and iron”

Austro-Prussian War/Seven Weeks War/German Civil War

Who:

• Austria and Prussia

Why:

• For Schleswig territory

Outcome:

• Prussian Victory

• Allows Italians to take Venice

Consequences:

• Most of Germany is now united, without Austria.

• End of Austrian Influence in Germany

• Dissolution of the German Confederation – Prussia replaced it with the North German Confederation

• Austria HAS to reorganize itself as Austria-Hungary to maintain control over its empire.

Franco- Prussian War

Who:

France and Prussia

Why:

• Bismarck sought to further unify Germany and annex Alsace Lorraine by provoking a war with France. 

Outcome:

• Paris fell to the Germans in January 1871, and Napoleon III was captured.  

• Prussian Junkers swear allegiance to the Kaiser in VERSAILLES!

• Treaty of Frankfurt -- France pays huge war debt, loss of Alsace-Lorraine to the Germans.

• German Unification created a military and economic power capable of challenging Great Britain. 

• The German Empire was proclaimed on Jan. 18, 1871 -- and Germany was now arguably the MOST powerful nation in Europe. 

  • Wilhelm I became the Emperor (Kaiser) of Germany

  • Bismarck became the Imperial Chancellor

German Constitution

• Emperor (Kaiser)

  • King of Prussia became German Emperor

  • Controlled army, navy, and foreign policy

  • Could declare war, make treaties, and appoint officials

• Chancellor

  • Head of government

  • Appointed by and responsible only to the Kaiser

• Parliament

  • Reichstag (Imperial Diet): universal male suffrage for parliament

  • Elected by all adult men, could debate/pass laws

• Federal System

  • Germany was made of individual states with some local control (like schools and police)

• Military

  • Controlled by the Kaiser, not the parliament

Citizens could vote, but real power stayed with the Kaiser and Chancellor.

Imperialism

When a powerful nation extends its control and influence over other weaker nations.

Imperialism Causes - Industrialization

Capitalism - point is to make a profit

Resources are depleting, so if economic expansion is to continue -- need to start looking other places for those resources

Get a colony?

• You can take the resources, make the product and sell the product to the colony

Imperialism Causes - Industrialization

Resources in high demand

• Coal and iron (needed for steel production)

• Petroleum

• New need for rubber

  • Tires, engine parts, etc.

  • Can’t find just anywhere -- it’s a plant, grows in the jungle

• Creation of internal combustion engine

Imperialism Causes - Industrialization

Europeans have better weapons

“Weapons Gap” - the idea that Europeans have advanced weapons compared to the indigenous peoples

Steam engine and modern ships -- makes transoceanic ships quicker, more efficient, no longer dependent on the currents or sail

• Smaller boats (paddle boats) now have steam engines

• This allows one to sail up stream

Imperialism Causes - Nationalism

Idea of a nation gaining colonies makes people feel proud.

• Sign of status

• Proof of superiority

• Countries who didn’t have colonies were second class

You can move up a “class” -- by taking colonies.

Newspapers publish stories about dangerous adventures, conquests, new animals, people, etc.

• Imperialism is viewed as thrilling/exciting - people love to read about it new places/animals

What does it do for a nation?

• It can give ALL SOCIAL classes something in common to be proud of.

Imperialism Causes - Social Darwinism

Survival of the fittest, applied to race/ethnicity/culture

• Only the strongest survive and are fit to survive

• Europeans are the strongest and this is the just “natural” way of the world

  • Reality? Weapons were making them superior, not their ethnicity

But this is the JUSTIFICATION

• Promoted ideas like “The White Man’s Burden”

White Man’s Burden

It’s a poem, written by Kipling that encouraged American to annex the Philippines (1889-1902)

Poem interpretation: The white race is morally obliged to bring civilization to the non-white peoples of planet Earth, and to encourage their progress through colonialism.

Imperialism is an act of service, a humanitarian effort to make the world a better place.

Rudyard Kipling

Wrote a poem detailing the “White Man’s Burden”

Imperialism Causes - Social Darwinism

White Man’s Burden

• This is something that needs to be done. Europeans need to go out and conquer, subjugate, in order to provide the proper way of living.

Implies that Europeans are the only ones living properly?...

Why this superiority complex?

• Christian

• Economic systems

• Standards of living

• Education

People that don’t live like this, can’t possibly be living “properly”?