Exam 1: Chapters 1-4(Psychology of Close Relationships)

Intimacy Components (7 Defining features- Miller)

Knowledge, Interdependence, Caring, Trust, Responsiveness, Mutuality, Commitment

Knowledge

Extensive personal information about each other

Interdependence

Mutual influence on each other’s lives

Caring

Affection & concern

Trust

Confidence that needs will be met

Responsiveness

Recognition and support of each other’s needs

Mutuality

Viewing selves as “us: instead of just “me” and “you”

Commitment

Intention to continue indefinitely

The Need To Belong (Baumeister & Leary)

• Humans have a fundamental need for close connections

• Lack of belonging = poorer mental and physical health (depression, earlier mortality)

Cultural Influences

• More unmarried adults, later marriages, higher divorce rates, more cohabitation

• Individualism and technology shape relationship norms.

Sex ratios

when women outnumber men, culture emphasizes independence; when men outnumber women, culture emphasizes marriage/fidelity

Attachment Styles

Secure; Preoccupied; Fearful; Dismissing

Secure

Comfortable with intimacy

Preoccupied (anxious)

crave closeness, fear abandonment

Fearful

Desire closeness but fear rejection

Dismissing

Avoid closeness, value independence

Gender & Sex differences

• Psychological differences between men & women are typically small

• Stereotypes exaggerate real differences

Challenges of studying relationships

• Relationships are complex, dynamic, influenced by many factors

• Ethical issues: privacy, emotions, potential distress

Research Designs

Correlational; Experimental; Developmental (Longitudinal, Cross-sectional, Retrospective)

Correlational

Shows associations but not causation

Experimental

Manipulation of variables, allows causal conclusions

Developmental: Cross-sectional

Compare people of different ages at one time

Developmental: Longitudinal

Follow same people across time

Developmental: Retrospective

Ask people to recall past experiences

Data collection methods

• Self-reports

• Observations

• Physiological measures

• Archival data

Self-reports

convenient, but subject to bias (memory errors, social desirability)

Observations

lab-based or naturalistic; can be expensive

Physiological measures

heart rate, hormone levels

Archival data

Pre-existing records

Sampling issues

Convenience samples: easily available participants

Representative samples: reflect broader population

Reliability vs. Validity

Reliability: consistency of measurement

Validity: accuracy of measurement

Foundations of Attraction

• Proximity

• Physical Attractiveness

• Reciprocity

• Similarity

Proximity

Being physically close increases liking (“mere exposure effect”)

Physical Attractiveness

Powerful in initial attraction; Halo effect (attractive people are assumed to have positive traits)

Reciprocity

We like people who like us

Similarity

Demographic, attitudes, values, and personality all predict attraction

Physical Attractiveness (details)

• Men value attractiveness slightly more than women, but both care

• Signs of health/fertility (symmetry, average news, waist-to-hip ratio in women, shoulder-to-hip ratio in men)

Balance Theory

Relationships thrive when attraction is mutual and balanced

Barriers to attraction

“Romeo & Juliet effect” and “Closing time effect”

Romeo & Juliet Effect

External opposition may strengthen attraction

Closing time effect

attractiveness ratings rise as the time goes on

Mate Value

• Perception of one’s overall attractiveness as a partner

• People pair with partners of similar mate value (“matching hypothesis”)

Social cognition

How people think about their relationships

First impressions

• Form quickly, often persistent

• Primary effect

• Confirmation bias

Primacy effect

initial information shapes later perceptions

Confirmation bias

Seeking evidence to support pre-existing beliefs

Attribution processes

• Internal vs. External causes

• Stable vs. Unstable causes

• Controllable vs. Uncontrollable causes

• Actor/observer effect

• Self-serving bias

Actor/Observer effect

We explain our own behavior as situational, others’ as dispositional

Self-serving bias

Taking credit for successes, blaming external factors for failures

Relationship Beliefs

Destiny Beliefs; Growth Beliefs

Destiny beliefs

Assume relationships are either meant to be or doomed

Growth beliefs

Assume relationships develop through effort

• Growth beliefs linked to healthier, longer-lasting relationships

Expectations & Self-fulfilling prophecies

• People’s expectations can shape behavior & outcomes

• e.g., if you expect a partner to be loving, you may act more warmly, prompting them to act lovingly in return

Memory & Perception Biases

• Current feelings can shape recollection of past experiences

• Partners often idealize each other, which can maintain satisfaction

Strategies of Impression Management

Ingratitation; Self-promotion; Intimidation; Supplication

Ingratiation

Using flattery/friendliness

Self-promotion

Showcasing skills/compotence

Intimidation

Showing strength/power

Supplication

Emphasizing weakness to gain help