AP Government and Politics Review 2025

natural rights

rights people posses by natural law apart from government; people are born with natural rights not given to them by a monarch or government

popular sovereignty

the power to govern is in the hands of the people

social contract

in order to protect their natural rights, the people willingly give some of their power power to the government; if the government does not respect the rights of the people, it is the job of the govern to overthrow the government

republicanism

people elect leaders to represent them and create laws in the public’s interest

limited government

a form of government that prevents tyranny through a system of checks and balances and the distribution of power among several acting members

participatory democracy

emphasizes broad participation in the political process by most, if not all, members of society

Ex: town hall, small areas (state level)

pluralist democracy

groups of people associate with interest groups who then compete to influence policy

Ex: interest groups →N double ACP (civil rights) & National Rifle Association (works to promote 2nd amendment rights)

elite democracy

emphasizes more limited participation in policy making on the assumption that government is complicated and therefore the most educated people run it

Ex: electoral college

problems with the Article of Confederation

1. only one branch of government (unicameral) → Congress gets one vote

2. no president or federal court system

3. Congress had no power to raise revenue through taxes

4. Congress had no power to raise an army

Shays Rebellion

one of the main reasons for the fall of the Articles of Confederation; Congress could not pay the veterans but still taxed them, they rose up to rebel in Massachusetts (the fed. gov. could not provide support)

Constitutional Convention / Philadelphia Convention (1787)

the goal of modifying the Articles of Confederation (ended up rewriting the articles)

Great Compromise

a combination of the Virginia Plan and New Jersey Plan; bicameral legislature, electoral college; three-fifths compromise

Virginia Plan

congressional representatives should be appointed by population; big states (population) will have more representatives, thus more power

New Jersey Plan

each state should be represented equally with one vote per state; smaller states had a more disproportionate amount of power

bicameral legislature

two houses of government (Congress)

1. House of Representatives: based on population, 435 total members, two year terms (represents fewer people → knosws their constituents better)

2. Senate: equal representation, 2 votes per state with a total of 100 members, six year terms (more constitutional responsibilities)

electoral college

each state is given the number of electors corresponding to the number of congressional representatives they have

• state legislative decide who is a candidate on the electoral college

three-fifths compromise

three-fifths (75%) of the enslaved population will count towards representation

Article V

set up the process for amending amendments

1. an amendment can be either proposed by Congress or by the states at a special convention

2. two-thirds vote before it becomes official

3. amendment is sent to the states for ratification

4. three-quarters of the state legislatures or state ratifying conventions need to agree → amendment becomes law (if they agree)

advice and consent

any appointments made by the president regarding the presidential cabinet or supreme court nominations (federal office) has to get approved by the senate

judicial review

court’s prerogative to judge the laws passed by Congress and signed by the president on the merits of their constitutionality (not originally in the Constitution)

federalism

the sharing of power between the national and state government

exclusive power

powers of the federal government stated specifically in the Constitution

Ex: only Congress can make treaties with sovereign nations

reserved power

powers not specifically given to the federal government, reserved for the states (10th amendment)

Ex: police, hospitals, education, etc.

concurrent power

power shared by both the federal government and state governments

Ex: income tax

fiscal federalism

the financial relationship of development and resources between different levels of government

categorical grants

funds given to states as long as the states comply with specific federal standards; very specific needs and Congress decides how the money is spent

block grants

given to states for a relatively broad purpose and the states can spend that money as they see fit

mandates

requires states to follow federal directives but often these directives are beyond the states’ budget capacity

• federal government sets the rules and provides money to the states that comply

unfunded mandates

the federal government provides mandates but not the funds

• no longer available

10th amendment

lays down the basis for reserved powers (state powers)

14th amendment

applies the Bill of Rights to the states (1st ten amendments)

commerce clause

allows Congress to regulate interstate commerce (trade between states)

necessary and proper clause (elastic clause)

grants Congress the power to make all laws necessary and proper for carrying out its enumerated powers

speaker of the house

house members chose this leader, speaker will always be from the majority party

majority and minority leaders

direct debates, guide their members in policy making issues

whips

render party disciple, make sure party members walk in line with party goals

president of the Senate

vice-president of the U.S., non-voting member of the Senate (unless tie)

president pro-tempore

most senior member of the majority party, has the authority to act as president of the Senate when the vice president is not present

senate majority leader

sets the legislative agenda

committees

a (small)group of representatives gathered to debate over a bill (exists in both houses)

standing committees

permanent committee, responsible for reviewing legislation

Ex: standing committee on the budget (Senate), house of judiciary committee (House of Rep.)

joint committee

members from both houses

Ex: library of Congress

select committee

temporary committee created for a specific purpose

conference committee

formed to reconcile the differences in legislation

House of Representatives (leg.)

limited speaking time

house rules committee

decides which bills make it to the floors for debate

commit of the whole

includes all 435 members (100 needed for a quorum)

discharge petition

used to force a bill out of committee for debate and voting

Senate (leg.)

unlimited speaking time

filibuster

an attempt to “kill” a bill by “talking it to death” or stall it

cloture rule

a three-fifths vote ends a filibuster (60 senators)

unanimous consent

a bill is put under consideration and with limited speaking time, everyone has to agree, if one senator rejects it will be called a “hold”

coalitions (in both houses)

the durability of the working relationships are affected by the term length differences

enumerated powers

explicitly listed in Article 1 Section 8 of the Constitution

Ex: federal funding, foreign policy, military legislation

implied powers

Congress can pass any law that is required by the enumerated powers (necessary and proper clause)

how a bill becomes law

1. the bill is introduced from a member from either house

2. assigned to a committee and often undergoes changes

3. president’s desk for signing

riders

non relevant additions which will usually benefit a representive’s’s own agenda or alternatively it could be something added to help get the bill passed

pork barrel projects

funds for special projects in a representaive’’s district (helps with reelection)

logrolling

representatives agree “if you vote for my bill, I will vote for yours”

mandatory spending

payments required by law, entitlement spending, interest payments on debt

Ex: medicare, medicaid

discretionary spending

all funds remaining after mandatory spending, pays federal employees

deficit

the gap between the projected budget and the actual funds available

divided government

both houses of Congress are from opposing parties

lame duck president

the president have little power over Congress

Ex: Obama during the final few months of his second term

census

every 10 years, people are counted in states

redistricting

the act of redrawing district lines

gerrymandering

district drawn to have unequal favor

partisan gerrymandering

district lines redrawn to have one party is more advantageous than another

racial gerrymandering

districts are drawn to have one race as the majority

veto

(the president has ten days to sign a bill into law)

1. bill dies

2. the bill is sent back to Congress and the bill changes

3. Congress can override the veto with a two-third vote

pocket veto

1. less than 10 days → the president can let the session expire and the bill is effectively dies

2. more than 10 days → the president does not sign it, the bill automatically becomes law

bargaining and persuasion

the president can use attention to sway public opinion, allowing bills to pass

executive power

the president has the force of federal law but not actual law

signing statement

informs the nation how the executive branch intends for the law to work

cabinet

presidential team of advisors who lead each of the executive agencies

supreme court nominations

less corruption, the judge holds the position for life

Hamiliton’s argument

1. single executive can act decisively

2. executive power is checked by other branches

3. corruption is more easily detected in a single executive

22nd amendment

two term limit for presidents

federal court system

1. U.S. district courts (94): original jurisdiction, right to hear a case for the first time

2. U.S. circuit court of appeals (12): appellate jurisdiction, hears appeals from the lower courts

3. supreme court (1): only one stated in the Constitution → both original and appellate juristidiction

judicial activism

the court acts to establish policy and considers more than just the constitutionality of a decisions it considers the decision’s broader effect on society

judicial restraint

a law should only by struck down if it violates the actual written word of the Consitution

ideology of judges

president appoints judges with their own ideology

bureaucracy

a large organization with power divided among several managers (not a 4th branch of government)

cabinet secretaries

leaders of the 15 executive departments

Ex: department of energy, department of homeland security, department of defense

agencies

work together to accomplish the goals of the departments

Ex: internal revenue service (IRS)

commissions

regulatory groups who operate somewhat independently from the authority of the president, but still fall under the executive authority; run by a board of individuals and are usually created for a specific purpose

Ex: federal communications commission (FCC)

government corporations

hybrid of a business and a government agency; government acquires businesses when they want to offer a public good, but the free market is best way to offer that service

Ex: public braodcasting service (PBS)

delegated discretionary authority

authority given to the bureaucracy by Congress that gives them the discretion on how to make the rules and carry out the laws

compliance monitoring

bureaucratic agencies establish rules for certain industries and then have to do the work of making sure those industries are complying with those rules

iron triangle

1. bureaucratic agencies + congressional committees

2. congressional committees + interest groups

3. interest groups + bureaucratic agencies

patronage system

a way for presidents to award those who supported his campaign (ended with Garfield’s assination)

merit system

pass examinations, based on merit (created by the Pendleton Civil Service 1883)

Bill of Rights

1. protects the rights from the intrusion of the federal government

2. 14th amendment allows the Bill of Rights to apply to the states

1st amendment

freedom of religion, speech, press, petition, and assembly

2nd amendment

right to bear arms

3rd amendment

prevents citizens from housing soldiers (unless at wartime)

4th amendment

protects against unreasonable searches and seizures of personal property and effects

5th amendment

deals with the right of citizens when they are falsely accused

6th amendment

explain how the process will go when a person is accused of a crime and explains the protections to which they are entitled

7th amendment

guarantees the right to a trail by jury