aging

Lifespan Development - baltes 1987

The concept that development occurs throughout one's life, involving multidimensional changes in physical, social, emotional, and psychological aspects.

dev is a lifelong process, multidimensional, multidirectional, malleable

Synaptic Pruning

The process of losing synapses as one ages, impacting abilities such as hearing or producing certain sounds, with implications for conditions like autism.

Selective Optimization with Compensation

A framework by Baltes emphasizing the importance of focusing on key goals, practicing and acquiring new skills, and compensating for losses to promote successful aging.

Cross-Sectional Designs

Research designs comparing data from different age groups at a single point in time, providing quick data collection but lacking insights into changes over time.

Longitudinal Designs

Research designs following the same participants over time, allowing for the observation of patterns of development but requiring significant time and resources.

Sequential Designs

Research designs combining elements of longitudinal and cross-sectional designs, offering efficiency in studying age-related changes and cohort effects.

Negative Cell Perception of Aging

Individuals with more negative self-perceptions of aging at baseline died, on average, 7.5 years earlier than those with positive perceptions.

Age Stereotypes and End-of-Life Decisions

Study by Levy et al. (2000) explored the impact of subliminal primes (positive, negative, neutral) on the "will to live" questionnaire and outcomes like chance of recovery and family support needed during treatment.

Stereotype Threat

Refers to situations where belonging to a group with negative stereotypes leads to underperformance, as seen in older populations (Lamont et al., 2015).

Stereotype Threat Mechanisms

Include distraction, decreased motivation, and reduced resources due to emotional upset (Steele, 2010).

Stereotype Threat and Predementia Screening

Mazerolle et al. (2016) found that worrying about appearing demented can influence test results, impacting diagnoses like prodromal Alzheimer's disease.

aka making you seem demented when youre not

Addressing Stereotypes in Research

Strategies include using explicit or implicit instructions to reduce threat and exposure to positive stereotypes before tasks.

Stereotype Threat, Task Instructions, and Memory Distortion

Thomas and Dubois (2011) studied how older adults are more likely to falsely remember information, influenced by task instructions and threat levels.

Intelligence

Defined as the overall mental abilities of an individual, involving reasoning, problem-solving, and planning (Gottfredson, 1997).

Different experts have defined it over time.

• Winchester in 1939 said it's about acting purposefully and thinking rationally.

• Spearman talked about "G," which is like an umbrella term for general intelligence, covering all the abilities we test for today to understand how smart someone is overall.

Assessing Intelligence

The WAIS-IV (2008) measures intelligence through verbal and performance IQ, assessing abilities like verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.

Types of Intelligence

Fluid intelligence (related to quick problem-solving) and crystallized intelligence (knowledge acquired through experience) are two types of intelligence identified by Raymond Cattell and others.

Fluid Intelligence

Intelligence based on physiological efficiency that shows age trends. aka how quickly and effectively someone can adapt to new challenges or situations. It tends to peak in early adulthood and gradually declines with age.

Crystallized Intelligence

Intelligence stemming from learning and acculturation, reflected in tests of knowledge, language use, and acquired skills.

aka what you’ve learned in life and increases as u age

based on ability to learn information from life experience

WAIS

Abbreviation for Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, used for assessing intelligence through tasks like math and word problems.

Example of WAIS: The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is a commonly used intelligence test for adults to assess cognitive abilities such as verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.

Flynn Effect

Phenomenon of substantial gains in intelligence, particularly in fluid intelligence, over recent decades.

Individual Differences

Variability in cognitive performance among individuals, suggesting that cognitive losses with age are not inevitable for everyone.

Encoding

Process of transferring incoming information into long-term memory for later use.

Retrieval

Process of accessing stored memories from long-term memory for use in the present.

Sensory Memory

Initial processing stage holding sensory information briefly before further processing.

Working Memory

Active processing system that manipulates information for temporary storage or transfer to long-term memory.

Declarative Memory

Memory that can be expressed verbally, including semantic (facts) and episodic (personal experiences) components.

Procedural Memory

Memory system involved in skill learning retention, such as tying shoes or driving, where individuals can perform tasks without conscious awareness.

Cognitive Enrichment Hypothesis

The theoretical framework suggesting that cognitive performance is malleable and influenced by various factors like genes, health, and intellectual engagement.

Genes and Cognitive Performance

Intelligence and cognitive abilities are influenced by genetic factors, with studies showing a significant genetic contribution to IQ scores.

Health and Cognitive Performance

The impact of chronic diseases, cardiovascular issues, and sensory losses on cognitive functions, especially in older individuals.

Social Engagement and Cognitive Performance

The positive association between social activity and cognitive decline in aging individuals, highlighting the importance of social interactions.

Neuroticism

Personality trait associated with psychological distress and negative emotions, linked to cognitive decline and Alzheimer's disease risk.

Educational History and Cognitive Performance

The relationship between education level and cognitive decline, with higher education being linked to better cognitive abilities and cognitive reserve.

Intellectual Engagement

The positive impact of intellectual activities like reading, music, and writing on cognitive performance and Alzheimer's disease risk.

Fitness and Cognitive Performance

The benefits of physical activity on cognitive functioning in older individuals, with more active individuals showing better cognitive outcomes.

Personality Traits (Big Five Model)

Overview of the Big Five personality traits - Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness - and their facets.

Erikson's Stage Theory

Erikson proposed a theory of lifespan development consisting of 8 life tasks with psychosocial conflicts to be resolved at each stage.

Psychosocial Crisis

Each of Erikson's life tasks involves a struggle between two opposing tendencies, with optimal resolution leading to basic strength and suboptimal resolution resulting in maladaptation or malignancy.

Erikson's Strengths in Adulthood

Erikson identified strengths acquired in adulthood such as hope, determination, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care, and wisdom based on successful resolution of earlier life tasks.

Ego Integrity vs

In old age, individuals reflect on their lives, seeking to achieve ego integrity by feeling content with accomplishments or falling into despair by regretting past experiences and unfulfilled goals.

Geriatric Depression Scale

A short form scale developed by Sheikh and Yesavage in 1986 to assess depression in older adults without directly asking about depressive symptoms.

Subjective Well-Being Model

This model of successful aging emphasizes high positive affect, low negative affect, and high life satisfaction as key components contributing to overall well-being in older individuals.

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

This theory suggests that as people age, they become more focused on present-oriented goals and prioritize emotionally meaningful experiences due to a perceived limitation of time.

Depressive Syndrome vs Depletion syndrome

Two separate syndromes observed in older adults, with depressive syndrome characterized by mood disorders and feelings of guilt, while depletion syndrome is associated with loneliness and chronic physical illness.

SELF- PERCEPTIONS OF AGING, HEALTH AND LONGETIVITY: RESEARCH EXAMPLES

• Baltimore longitudinal study found that individuals with negative perceptions of aging were more likely to have cardiovascular events.

• Ohio longitudinal study showed that those with negative self-perceptions of aging died earlier than those with positive perceptions.

Non - normative influences

a trauma, unusual, one thing doesn’t happen to everyone, like losing your legs is non - normative

Normative age-graded influences

influence that happens to most people, sich as retiting in your 60’s or losing a loved one

normative history graded influences

events that occur for everyone, but can happen at different times to different age groups. someone at age 6 experiencing 9/11 vs someone age 60 experiencing 9/11

SOURCES OF STABILITY

1. genes - having mental health issues due to genes

2. environment - HARVARD study of men - men with warm parents were happier and more successful vs those who didn’t have warm parents

3. gene-environment interactions

AGEISM AND RESEARCH DESIGN

Senesces view of aging: portrays it as a period of stagnation and decline, suggesting that individuals will not change but only deteriorate over time.

Ageist research designs: involve biased questioning based on preconceived notions, leading to inaccurate and skewed results. This trend in psychology of aging often assumes negative outcomes without considering alternative perspectives or accurate data.

HOW TO AVOID AGIEST BIASES

• Is the research question bias - is there any possibility the researcher could’ve found something else to what they found , more than one answer

• Is the comparison being made fair , is it fair to compare older and younger populations on the tasks being investigated 

• Test for mechanism, not just differences - is this ab neurological changes, or a skill 

OPERATIONALIZING AGE

• Chronological Age: Reflects how long a person has been alive.

• Functional Age: Represents a person's physical capabilities, which may differ from their chronological age. EG: 50 yr old lifting heavy weights

• Biological Age: Refers to the body's health and functioning.

• Psychological Age: Relates to cognitive and emotional maturity.

• Social Age: Considers a person's roles and relationships in society.

A FRAMEWORk FOR SUCCESSFUL AGING - selective optimization w compensation (baltes, 96)

• Cater to age and slow down

• Practice selected pieces more

• Select and narrow down repertoire

• Lost ability to play at best

• Realized decline in performance

• arthur rubeinstein was in his 80s

HOW TO ENGAGE IN SELECTIVE OPTIMIZATION WITH COMPENSATION

1. SELECTION - focuses on important goals

2. OPTIMIZATION - practices the selected goals - acquire new skills if needed - more energy and time on these things

3. COMPENSATION - find a new way to overcome losses that optimization alone cant conquer

RESEARCH METHODS

• Cross-sectional design: Compares different groups at one point in time

• Longitudinal design: Studies the same group over a period of time

• Sequential design: Combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal

• Experimental method: Manipulating variables in controlled settings

• Survey method: Gathering data through questionnaires

• Observational research: Studying behaviour without interference

• Archival method: Using existing data sets for analysis

DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

DV: what ur measuring (reaction time, personality traits)

IV: only exists in experiment, is the thing you’re manipulating (how quickly people read a paragraph in 20 pt font so the iv is the font size, dv is the reading speed)

RANDOM ASSIGNMENT

thing u do in experiment to create the most equivalent groups you can possibly create across the levels of your independent variable. Random assignments only used in experiments

SUBJECT VARIABLE

•  participant variable that created on preexisting differences between groups (age is subject variable 20, 50s, 80s we want to compare performance on people in these groups and we talk ab what we found casually. “Age caused this to happen” 

CROSS - SECTIONAL DESIGNS

• Compare data collected from different age groups at the same point in time - contrast w longditual design where u follow people over an amount of time

THREE INTERPRETATIVE PROBLEMS

1. survival principle - older ppl and young ppl experience life differently and know different things

2. self selection -

3. cohort effects

COHERT EFFECTS EXAMPLE: AGE, OR EDUCATION  -BRICKMAN ET AL 2006

The study used MRI to measure memory, executive function, and white matter volume in participants aged 21 to 79. They found that executive function varied by age, with younger and middle-aged adults performing better. Older adults had lower white matter volume, possibly due to aging, nutrition, health, and education affecting neurodevelopment. Higher education and cognitive activities among younger people were linked to higher white matter volume.

PROS AND CONS OF LOGTITUAL DESIGNS 

1. Cost of time 

2. Cross generational problem 

3. Practice effects 

4. Selective and attrition  attrition 

CROSS COHORT COMPARISONS

performance is similar = rule out cohert effect

performance is different = must consider cohort effect

cross-cohort design

A cross-cohort design is when researchers study and compare different groups of people at the same time to see how they differ based on specific factors

HOW DO AGING RELATED STEREOTYPES IMPACT PERFORMANCE IN THE LAB AND IN REAL LIFE

• Impact of stereotypes on health and longevity 

• Impact of stereotype threat on performance 

• How to negate the impact of stereotypes and stereotype threat on performance in the lab 

• How to negate the impact of stereotypes on real-world behaviour 

TIMOTHY SALTHOUSE

• does better research bc longtituinal is misleading?

SALTHOUSE (2009) WHEN DOES AGE - RELATED COGNITVE DECLINE BEGIN 

• early , in the 20’s

• believes Cohort effects are irrelevant because same aged peopleare basically the same no matter when they were born - all 50 yr olds are the same doesnt matter when they were born

• In 2009 - he said cohort effect are just generations effects - this is wrong 

individual differences in cogniitve abilities

• Individual differences in cognitive abilities are significant, affecting about 50% of the population on average.

• Within an aging population, there is considerable variability in cognitive decline, challenging the notion of a uniform decline with age.

• The focus on averages can mask this variability and lead to overlooking those who maintain high intellectual abilities into old age.

• Studies like Schaie (1996) show that around 53% of people aged 80 and above perform comparably well to much younger individuals in both fluid and crystallized intelligence tasks.

• This means an 80-year-old can perform as well as a 30-year-old in intellectual tasks.

• The concept of overlapping distributions highlights that while average intellectual performance may decline with age, there's a significant overlap between older and younger individuals in terms of performance.

• This variability underscores the need to consider individual differences rather than relying solely on average trends when discussing cognitive abilities in aging populations.

VARVariability in number of ability showing losses (SHAIE 1994)

• In seattle longitudinal study shaie, how many people had shown losses 

• Tested both fluid and crystallized abilities 

• In graph u can see by age 60 its like a 100 people are showing some loss in something, prob fluid ability  , but rare to have people have loss in two abilities

VARIAVBILTY IN INTELLECTUAL PERFORMANCE NYBERG ET AL 2012 

• Graph shows meta analysis that sorted people into higher versus lower cognitive performance on general iq test combining crystallized and fluid ability 

• U can see old people in low cognitive performance

• Combing and doing well like they’re younger counterparts 

WHITE MATTER INTEGRITY; MRI IMAGES

brain w white splotches are white matter, reflects of myelin sheath

• But huge indivvidal differences suggest that losses, while perhaps eventually inevitable, dont have to be catastrophic for all people 

META ANALYTIC FINDINGS (PEITSHNIG & VORACEK 2015)

• Substantial gains for gf 

• Gains for gc 

• Stringer gains for gf than for gc 

• Fluid might be ab better nutrition, healthcare

• Crystallized, more education 

• Decreasing in recent decades 

• Biggest gains in industrialized cultures 

PROPOSED MECHANISM FOR THE FLYNN EFFECT

1. Prosperity - 

2. Education - correlated w iq

3. Technology - not mian driving force boot el al 

4. Test taking behaviour 

5. Test wiseness - perform better or tests 

6. Hybrid vigour - outbreeding, meeting more people and multicultural, weve begun mating people different to us , more genetic variability that can cause intelligence ro get higher

7. Blood lead levels - 1970s, lead is neurolgicaly awful , effort to get rid of it, 

8. Nutrition - 

9. pathogen stress

10. life history speed

• Longitudinal and cross sectional evidence show decreased performance on iq tests w increasing age 

• These data probably reflect development as well as cohort effects 

• Individual differences and cohort differences mechanism suggest possible interventions

INFORMATION PRICVESSING/MEMORY LECTURE

• We worry about memory and lawyas assume our age has to do w it when we get old 

• Anxiety won't improve your memory

• We need to investigate when we see evidence of memory loss is it really evidence of a memory loss and where are behaving these memory losses 

AGE - RELATED MEMORY DEFICITS

BASIC MEMORY PROCESSING:

1. Remembering

2. encoding

3. retrieval

4. losses reflecting inefficiencies in effecting and retrieval

encoding and retrival

• putting away ij memory storage so we can retrieve it later

• looking thru long term memory and pull out info when we need it

GREGUS CRAIKS HYPOTHESIS - PROCESSING RESOURCE

As we age, Creek argues that our biological systems undergo normative age-related changes, resulting in fewer resources for tasks requiring effortful processing, such as memory

craiks suggests that while we're capable of engaging in effortful encoding and retrieval processes, we often opt for shortcuts due to limited resources, even though it's not a conscious decision. This may lead to using shallow processing strategies that don't encode information effectively or make it easy to retrieve.

(crak and lochhart, 1972) - deepp vs shallow processing

U might use a shallow processing strategy which isnt encoded well or cant be found easily to retrieve

deep processing is very effortful and we have fewer resources to dedicate towards it as we get older

EVIDENCE SUPPORTING CRAIK HYPOTHESIS

• Recall - hardest , you need to be very effortful eg) remembering someone's name 

• Free recall is real hard

• Recognition - easier , less effortful eg) dont need to know the name but u canr ecognize the person, like seeing ur friend 

• Studying a list of words and then identify in a larger list of words which words u saw previously 

• Priming - even easier , no effort   , not studying bc its not presented as a memory test, you’ll see the word yellow and then say banana , this is priming 

Event based vs time based prospective memory performance

• Event based is passing fortnos and saying “oh i need to get a salad” passing dry cleaners oh let me pick up my suit 

• Time based is “its 8pm i have to call my grandchild’ “i have to take my pill bc its bedtime” this is uncued , which means it tajes more resources so when we get older it gets worse bc we lack the processing resources

Summary of processing resources hypothesis

•  the more process required, the more lil we see age decretments on that task - w every increase in the processing needing processing resources needed for a task you're going to see worse perfrimnaces

SAWL

• Sensory Input: Information enters through our senses.

• Attention: Decide if you want to process it further.

• Working Memory: Allows for shallow to deeper processing levels.

• Long-term Store: Where well-processed information is stored permanently

THE SENSORY STORE

• What is sensory memory - touch taste smell, hold on long enough to see of we need to process iy 

• Aging researchers ignored it until fact: we get older our vision and hearing becomes degraded so the info in our sensory  store will also be degraded so not very recognizable

Sensory deficit hypothesis

• when we get older the quality the information entering the  sensory store is decreasing - itll take more resources if u should attend toi that info 

SPINKS ET AL 1996 WFFECTS OF DEGRADED AUDITORY INOUT ON WORD RECALL 

• Normal degraded recording 

• Normal - younger outoerfirmed the old 

• Degraded - young people did badly the way old people did for normal 

GILMORE ET AL 2006: EFFECTS OF DEGRADED VISUAL INPUTS ON DIGIT SYMBO TASKS

• Only young people 

• Ra and they got a high contrast version and some got low 

• Younger people got the normak task  they did better than the young people who got the bad one 

THE SHORT TERM STORE 

• Where we hold stuff whether briefly or we lose it bc we didnt soend enough time thinking ab it 

• As long as ur thinking and processing it, itll stay in sensory store 

• WD 40

PRIMARY VS WORKING MEMORY

1. Primary memory (pm) : passive storage - like holding a phone number , i say 4 letters u say them back 

2. Working memory (WM): active processing - buffer system, chewing on info that u wanna keep , manipulate the info and perform operation on it itll get sent to long term memory

LONG TERM MEMORY

divide by 2 things

• declarative and non declarative

• declarative - memory thats expressed verbally ( memory of ur life)

SEMANTIC MEMORY

• Used for remembering every day facts and information

• Well preserved except doe the tip of the tongue phenomenon 

• Processing resources explanation

EPSIODIC MEMORY

• Ab our ability to recall events 

• Memory for events u personally experience at a specific time and place 

• Giving encoding instructions or retrieval cues improves performance 

• Zelinksy & burnnight 1997 longitudinal study 

• Over the course ofb 216 yrs theyre is decrease 

PROCEDURAL MEMORY

• Involved in a skill learning retention, tying shoes, driving, dont see losses, people can still do these things 

• Dont need to think about doing them when doing them

MEMory systems showing age related dclines

• Sensory processing 

• Working memory 

• Prospective memory 

• Epsiodocu memory 

Preserved memory systems 

• Primary memory 

• Procedural memory 

• Semantic memory 

 

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: THE COGBITVE ENRICHMENT HYPOTHESIS 

Factors associated with cognitive function 

• Genes 

• Health 

• Bio sex

• Personal/social factors 

• Intellectual factors 

• Exercise 

FUNCTIONAL THRESHOLD

• This slope down with age , loss of gray and white matter eg the blue dots are meant to be right in the middfle of the grey shades and indicate developmental trajectory under typical circusimrtances so average person will be functioningnnormallty and lose cog function in elder years where they will cross the functional threshold and u cannot live independently anymore, some people might not cross that threshold, average person might. 

• But even a 60 yr old has a chance of doing so ‘we annaa know what gets someone to be at the top or bottom and design interventions 

GENES AND COGNITVE PERFORMANCE 

• Intelligence and cog abilities are genetic, it our genotype 

• Plomin 1990 meta analysis - 50% of IQ scores can be explained by genes , the other 50 explained by something else like environment 

• Tucker - drob et al 2013 meta - analysis - took in social economic status - found those who have adequate environments genes can explain 80%. But low enviromnet, iq is only explained by genes by 30%, genes s have been deprived to showcase everything 

• Mclearn et al , twins 80+ age  mono and dizygotic.  - 

VISIUAL ACUITY

• Age 85 to 103 we see decreases in visual acuity, men and women show decreases. 3 different ways of measuring visual acuity 

• Visual acuity is decreasing w increasing age

auditory acuity and age

•  As is auditory acuity 

• Men younger have better threshold than older people 

• Whe linde and baltes