LEADERSHIP

Positional Power

The higher the position in organizational hierarchy, the more power the position has.

The leader

Most leadership theories are based on understanding the differences among personal traits and behaviors

The Led

This is a shift on emphasis from the preceding area, in that leadership is construed more in terms of who is led than who does the leading.

The Influence Power

The concept of influence entails how one person’s actions affect another’s, it may be through coercion, manipulation, and/or persuasion ; instrumental leaders and supportive leaders.

The Situation

Can greatly affect the types of behaviors a leader has to exhibit to be effective.

Leader emergence

Can be formal and informal

Leader effectiveness

Based on the performance of the leader

Leader Emergence

People who become leaders possess traits or characteristics different from people who do not become leaders.

THREE MOTIVATION FACTORS TO LEAD

1. Affective Identity Motivation

2. Non-Calculative Motivation

3. Social-Normative Motivation

Affective Identity Motivation

The motivation to lead as a result of a desire to be in charge and lead others; Tend to have the most leadership experience and are rated by others as having high leadership potential.

Non-Calculative Motivation

Seek leadership positions because they will result in personal gain.

Social-Normative Motivation

The desire to lead out of a sense of duty or responsibility.

Leader Performance

Leaders who perform well possess certain characteristics that poorly performing leaders do not.

Traits of Leader Performance

• High in: Extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness are positively high in performance and that neuroticism was negatively related to leader performance.

• Self-monitoring

Self-monitoring

A personality trait characterized by the tendency to adapt one’s behavior to fit a particular social situation

Cognitive Ability

Most important when the leader is not distracted by stressful situations and when the leader uses a more directive leadership style ; key to effective leadership is the synthesis of three variables: Intelligence (academic and practical and creativity)

Leadership Motive Pattern

Leader has a high need for power and a low need for affiliation.

NEEDS (FROM TRAIT THEORY)

1. Need for Power

2. Need for Achievement

3. Need for Affiliation

About GENDER in Leadership

Men and Women appear not to differ in leadership effectiveness.

Thematic Apperception Test

• Projective test in which a person is shown a series of pictures and asked to tell a story about what is happening in each.

• Designed to measure various need levels

Needs for power, achievement, and affiliation can be measured through various psychological tests, commonly used is the _________, and other commonly used is the ___________

1. Thematic Apperception Test

2. Job Choice Exercise (JCE)

Job Choice Exercise (JCE)

• An objective test used to measure various need levels.

• Person reads descriptions of jobs that involve varying degrees of power, achievement, and affiliation needs and rates how desirable he finds each particular job.

Person Oriented Leaders

Employees are intrinsically motivated, seek responsibility, and are self-controlled, do not dislike work, focus on the wellbeing of the employees.

Task Oriented Leaders

Define and structure their roles as well as the roles of their subordinates, focus on the objectives and what they need to accomplish

Theory X Leaders

Believe that employees are extrinsically motivated and thus lead by giving directiveness and setting goals ; pessimistic view of other people and assume that they are naturally unmotivated and dislike work.

Theory Y Leaders

Optimistic opinion of their people, and they use decentralized, participative management style.

Managerial Grid

A measure of leadership that classifies a leader into one of five leadership styles

Three Major Schools of Thought

Ohio State Studies, Theory X, and Managerial Grid.

Managerial grid classifies a leader into one of five leadership styles

• Team Leadership

• Impoverished Leadership

• Middle-of-The-Road Leadership

• Country Club Leadership Style

• Produce or Perish Leadership Style: "Authoritarian" or "authority-compliance"

Team Leadership

Leader is concerned with both productivity and employee well-being.

Impoverished Leadership

Leader is concerned with neither productivity nor the well-being of employees.

Middle-of-The-Road Leadership

A leadership style reflecting a balanced orientation between people and tasks.

Country Club Leadership Style

Shows the most concern for people but the least concern for production.

Produce or Perish Leadership Style: "Authoritarian" or "authority-compliance”

managers, focuses solely on production with a Draconian disregard for the needs of the workers on the team.

Initiating Structure

The extent to which leaders define and structure their roles and the roles of their subordinates.

Person-Oriented Leaders, Theory Y Leaders, And Leaders High in Consideration

• Act in a warm and supportive manner and show concern for their subordinates.

• Employees are intrinsically motivated, seek responsibility, are self-controlled, and do not necessarily dislike work.

• Consult their subordinates before making decisions, praise their work, ask about their families, do not look over their shoulder, and use a more “hands-off” approach

Task-Centered Leaders, Theory X Leaders, And Leaders High in Initiating Structure

• Define and structure their own roles and those of their subordinates to attain the group’s formal goals.

• Employees as lazy, extrinsically motivated, wanting security, undisciplined, and shirking responsibility.

• Lead by giving directives, setting goals, and making decisions without consulting their subordinates.

Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ)

Filled out by supervisors or leaders who want to know their own behavioral style.

Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ)

Completed by subordinates to provide a picture of how they perceive their leader’s behavior.

leader’s task or person orientation can be measured by several instruments, two

of which are the

• Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ)

• Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ)

Unsuccessful Leaders/Poor leader behavior has three major causes

• Lack of Training

• Cognitive Deficiencies

• Personality

Cognitive Deficiencies

Unable to learn from experience and are unable to think strategically—they consistently make the same mistakes and do not plan ahead.

Many unsuccessful leaders are insecure and adopt one of three personality types:

• Paranoid/Passive Aggressive Leader

• High-Likability Floater

• Narcissists

Paranoid/Passive Aggressive Leader

Quiet people who often compliment their subordinates and fellow workers but they resent the successes of others and are likely to act against subordinates

High-Likability Floater

• Goes along with the group, is friendly to everyone, and never challenges anyone’s idea.

• No enemies because never does anything, challenges anyone, or stands up for the rights of his employees.

• A high-likability floater is liked by all, but avoids responsibility, avoids conflict, and fails to lead or defend others when needed.

Narcissists

• Overcome their insecurity by overconfidence.

• Like to be the center of attention, promote their own accomplishments, and take most of the credit for the successes of their group but they avoid all blame for failure.

Rather than concentrate on traits, Rasch, Shen, Davies, and Bono (2008) collected

critical incidents of ineffective leader behavior and found that such behavior fell under

10 basic dimensions:

• Engaging in illegal and unethical behavior

• Avoiding conflict and people problems

• Demonstrating poor emotional control (e.g., yelling and screaming)

• Overcontrolling (e.g., micromanaging)

• Demonstrating poor task performance

• Poor planning, organization, and communication

• Starting or passing on rumors or sharing confidential information

• Procrastinating and not meeting time commitments

• Failing to accommodate the personal needs of subordinates

• Failing to nurture and manage talent

Situational Favorability

• Fiedler believed that an individual’s leadership style is the result of a lifetime of experiences and thus is extremely difficult to change ; Fiedler’s Contingency Model holds that any individual’s leadership style is effective only in certain situations.

• Leadership effectiveness is dependent on the interaction between the leader and the situation.

Least-Preferred Coworker (LPC) Scale

A test used in conjunction with Fiedler’s contingency model to reveal leadership style and effectiveness ; Identify the subordinate or employee with whom they would least want to work ; Rate that person on several semantic differential scales that range from nice to nasty and from friendly to unfriendly.

Three Variables to Determine Favorableness of a Situation

1. Task Structuredness

2. Leader Position Power

3. Leader-Member Relations

Task Structuredness

Tasks have clear goals and problems can be solved, more structured the task the more favorable the situation.

Leader Position Power

A leader, by nature of the position, has the power to reward and punish subordinates

Leader-Member Relations

Subordinates like a leader, the more they like their leader, the more favorable the situation, most important of the three variables.

Leader Match

A training program that teaches leaders how to change situations to match their leadership styles.

• Leaders learn through four-hour workshops how to diagnose situations and then change these situations to fit their particular leadership styles.

There are six styles of leadership and that each style will be effective only in one of six organizational climates.

1. Informational Style in A Climate of Ignorance

2. Magnetic Style in a climate of Despair

3. Position Style in a climate of Instability

4. Affiliation Style in a climate of Anxiety

5. Coercive Style in a climate of Crisis

6. Tactical Style in a climate of Disorganization

Informational style

A style

of leadership in which the leader

leads through knowledge and

information; most effective in

a climate of ignorance.

Ignorance

An organizational

climate in which important

information is not available.

Magnetic style

A style of

leadership in which the leader

has influence because of his or

her charismatic personality; most

effective in a climate of despair.

Despair

An organizational

climate characterized by low

morale.

Position style

A leadership

style in which the leaders in

fluence others by virtue of their

appointed or elected authority;

most effective in a climate of

instability.

Instability

An organizational

climate in which people are not

sure what to do.

Affiliation style

A leadership

style in which the individual

leads by caring about others

and that is most effective in

a climate of anxiety

Anxiety

An organizational

climate in which worry

predominates.

Coercive style

A leadership

style in which the individual

leads by controlling reward and

punishment; most effective in a

climate of crisis

Crisis

A critical time or climate

for an organization in which the

outcome to a decision has extreme consequences.

Tactical style

A leadership

style in which a person leads

through organization and strategy; most effective in a climate

of disorganization.

Disorganization

A climate in

which the organization has the

necessary knowledge and resources but does not know how

to efficiently use the knowledge

or the resources.

if IMPACT theory is correct, people can become effective leaders by one of the four

method

Subordinate Ability

• Leader’s behavior will be accepted by subordinates only to the extent to which the behavior helps the subordinates achieve their goals.

• leaders will be successful only if their subordinates perceive them as working with them to meet certain goals and if those goals offer a favorable outcome for the subordinates.

• Leaders who adapt their behavior to match the needs of their subordinates will be more effective than leaders who stick to one leadership style

According to House’s path–goal theory, a leader can adopt one of four behavioral leadership styles to handle each situation:

• instrumental, supportive, participative, or achievement-oriented.

• If employees are very capable, the leader doesn’t need to be very directive.

• If the task is unclear or unstructured, the leader should give more guidance.

Instrumental-Style

Leader calls for planning, organizing, and controlling the activities of employees.

Supportive-Style

Leader shows concern for employees.

Participative-Style

Leader shares information with employees and lets them participate in decision making

Achievement-Oriented Style

Sets challenging goals and rewards increases in performance.

Situational Leadership Theory

Effective leaders must adapt their style of leadership to fit both the situation and the followers

Leader typically uses one of Four Behavioral Styles:

Delegating, directing, supporting, or coaching.

Most important follower characteristic.

1. Directing Approach

2. Coaching Approach

3. Supporting

4. Delegating

Directing Approach

Leader directs the follower by telling him what to do and how to do it.

Coaching Approach

• Individuals are willing to do the work but are not sure how to do it.

• Leaders explain and clarify how work should be done.

Supporting

• Individuals are given plenty of emotional support and opportunities for two-way communication.

• Individuals already know what to do but are not sure whether they want to do it.

Delegating

• Followers are both willing and able to perform the task.

• Leaders delegate specific tasks to subordinates and let them complete those tasks with minimal supervision or guidance.

Leader-member

exchange (LMX) theory

Concentrates on the interactions between leaders and subordinates.

• Leaders develop different roles and relationships with the people under them and thus act differently with different subordinates.

• Originally called Vertical Dyad Linkage (VDL) Theory

LMX theory states that leaders develop different roles and relationships with the people under them and thus act differently with different subordinates.

• In-Group

• Out-Group

In-Group

• High-quality relationship with the leader.

• Developed trusting, friendly relationships with the leader.

• Leader allows them to participate in decisions and by rarely disciplining them.

Out-Group

• Low-quality relationship with the leader.

• More likely to be given direct orders and to have less say about how affairs are conducted.

Based on behavioral theory

• Excellent leaders possess specific skills or engage in behaviors that poor leaders do not.

• If the specific behaviors and skills important for effective leadership can be identified, then most people can be trained to become effective leaders.

• If this theory is true, then

  leadership and management are something learned, usually through experience

Vroom–Yetton Model

• Concentrates on helping a leader choose how to make a decision.

• Decide when decisions should be made alone and when they should be made with the help of others.

Management by Walking Around (MBWA)

• Leaders and managers are most effective when they are out of their offices, walking around, and meeting with and talking to employees and customers about their needs and progress.

• Increase communication, build relationships with employees, and encourage employee participation

Leadership Through Power (Facts)

• Power is important to a leader because as it increases so does the leader’s potential to influence others

Five Basic Types of Power

1. Expert Power

2. Legitimate Power

3. Reward Power

4. Coercive Power

5. Referent Power

Expert Power

• Power that individuals have because they have knowledge.

• Two requirements: knowledge must be something that others in an organization need and others must be aware that the leader knows something.

Legitimate Power

The power that individuals have because of their elected or appointed position

Reward Power

Leadership power that exist to the extent that the leader has the ability and authority to provide rewards.

Coercive Power

Leadership power that comes from the leader’s capacity to punish others.

Referent Power

• Followers can identify with a leaders and the leader’s goals.

• Leaders who are well liked can influence others.

• Obtain through complimenting others, doing favors, and generally being friendly and supportive.

Transactional Leadership

• Leadership style in which the leader focuses on task-oriented behaviors.

Transactional leadership is thought to have three dimensions:

contingent reward, management by exception-active, and management by exception-passive.

Contingent Reward

Leaders who reward followers for engaging in desired activity

Management by exception active

Leaders who actively monitory performance and take corrective action when needed.

Management by exception passive

Leaders who do not actively monitor follower behavior and who take corrective action only when problems are serious.