Introduction to Psychology & Neuroscience – Vocabulary

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering foundational concepts from psychology, neuroscience, and sensation–perception lectures.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Behavior

Any observable action of a living organism.

Mental Processes

Internal, covert activities such as thinking, feeling, and remembering.

Goals of Psychology

Describe, predict, explain, control, and influence behavior and mental processes.

Mind-Body Dualism

Descartes’ idea that mind and body are separate but interact.

Nature–Nurture Issue

Debate over the relative contributions of heredity and environment to behavior.

Indigenous Psychology

Framework developed from local culture and context to address local issues.

Wilhelm Wundt

Founded the first psychology laboratory (1879) and is considered the father of modern psychology.

Structuralism

Titchener’s approach using introspection to study the basic components of consciousness.

Introspection

Self-observation of one’s own conscious experience.

Functionalism

James’s perspective emphasizing the purpose of behavior and mental processes in adapting to the environment.

Psychoanalysis

Freud’s theory and therapy focusing on unconscious conflicts that shape behavior and personality.

Behaviorism

School of thought that studies observable behavior and the laws of learning.

Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an automatic response.

Operant Conditioning

Skinner’s learning process in which behavior is shaped by consequences (reinforcement or punishment).

Humanistic Psychology

Maslow and Rogers’ perspective emphasizing free will, self-actualization, and human potential.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Human motivation model culminating in self-actualization.

Biological Perspective

Focus on physical bases of behavior—nervous, endocrine, immune systems, and genetics.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Modern view emphasizing unconscious processes and early experiences, rooted in Freud.

Behavioral Perspective

Perspective focusing on how behavior is acquired or modified via experience and environment.

Humanistic Perspective

View stressing personal growth, interpersonal relations, and self-concept.

Positive Psychology

Field studying positive emotions, traits, and institutions to balance traditional pathology focus.

Cognitive Perspective

Approach emphasizing mental processes such as memory, language, and problem-solving.

Cross-Cultural Perspective

Study of how cultural factors influence behavior.

Evolutionary Perspective

Application of natural selection principles to explain psychological processes.

Culture

Shared attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors transmitted across generations.

Ethnocentrism

Tendency to use one’s own culture as a standard for judging others.

Individualistic Culture

Culture that emphasizes personal goals and individual identity.

Collectivistic Culture

Culture that emphasizes group goals and social harmony.

Clinical Psychology

Specialty focusing on diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of psychological disorders.

Counseling Psychology

Field helping people adjust, adapt, and cope with life challenges.

Developmental Psychology

Study of physical, social, and psychological changes across the lifespan.

Industrial/Organizational Psychology

Study of people’s behavior at work and in organizations.

Scientific Method

Systematic procedure of observing, forming hypotheses, collecting data, and drawing conclusions.

Hypothesis

Testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Theory

Tentative explanation integrating findings and guiding future research.

Descriptive Research

Systematic observation to describe behavior without manipulating variables.

Naturalistic Observation

Recording behavior in its natural setting without interference.

Case Study

In-depth study of an individual or small group.

Survey

Research method using questionnaires or interviews to gather data from a sample.

Sample

Selected segment of a population used for study.

Representative Sample

Sample that closely parallels the population on relevant characteristics.

Random Selection

Procedure ensuring each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion.

Correlation

Statistical measure showing how strongly two variables are related.

Correlation Coefficient

Numeric index (-1 to +1) indicating magnitude and direction of a relationship.

Positive Correlation

Variables increase or decrease together.

Negative Correlation

One variable increases as the other decreases.

Experiment

Method to identify cause-and-effect by manipulating an independent variable.

Independent Variable

Factor deliberately manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variable

Factor measured to assess the effect of the independent variable.

Confounding Variable

External factor that could influence the outcome of an experiment.

Random Assignment

Placing participants into groups by chance to equalize conditions.

Experimental Group

Participants exposed to the treatment condition.

Control Group

Participants exposed to no treatment or standard condition for comparison.

Double-Blind Technique

Both participants and experimenters are unaware of group assignments.

Placebo

Inactive substance or procedure used as a control.

Placebo Effect

Changes due to participants’ expectations rather than an active treatment.

Demand Characteristics

Subtle cues that reveal experimenters’ expectations to participants.

Testing Effect

Improved memory from practicing retrieval compared with restudying.

Informed Consent

Participant agreement based on understanding of the study and their rights.

Comparative Psychology

Study of behavior across animal species.

Neuron

Basic cell of the nervous system that transmits information.

Cell Body (Soma)

Part of neuron containing the nucleus; maintains cell life.

Dendrite

Branch-like extension that receives signals from other neurons.

Axon

Elongated fiber that carries impulses away from the cell body.

Myelin Sheath

Fatty insulation on some axons that speeds neural transmission.

Glial Cells

Support cells providing nutrition, insulation, and waste removal for neurons.

Resting Potential

Electrical charge difference (≈-70 mV) across the neuron membrane at rest.

Action Potential

Brief electrical impulse by which information is transmitted along the axon.

Stimulus Threshold

Minimum membrane potential needed to trigger an action potential.

Refractory Period

Time after an action potential when a neuron is less able to fire.

Synapse

Junction between two neurons where communication occurs.

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messenger that crosses the synaptic gap between neurons.

Reuptake

Reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the presynaptic neuron.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Neurotransmitter involved in learning, memory, and muscle contraction.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter linked to movement, thought, and reward.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter affecting mood, sleep, and perception.

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter involved in arousal and alertness.

Glutamate

Primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.

GABA

Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that reduce pain and produce pleasure.

Agonist

Drug that mimics or enhances a neurotransmitter’s effect.

Antagonist

Drug that blocks or diminishes a neurotransmitter’s effect.

Reuptake Inhibitor

Drug that blocks the reabsorption of neurotransmitters, increasing their availability.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

All nerves outside the CNS.

Somatic Nervous System

PNS division controlling voluntary muscles and sensory information.

Autonomic Nervous System

PNS division controlling involuntary functions of organs and glands.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Autonomic branch that arouses the body for fight-or-flight.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Autonomic branch that calms the body and conserves energy.

Endocrine System

Glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream to regulate body functions.

Pituitary Gland

Master endocrine gland controlled by the hypothalamus.

Spinal Reflex

Automatic response processed in the spinal cord without brain involvement.

Medulla Oblongata

Hindbrain structure regulating vital functions like breathing and heartbeat.

Pons

Brainstem structure acting as a relay between cerebellum and cortex; aids sleep and respiration.

Cerebellum

Hindbrain structure coordinating balance and fine motor activity.

Reticular Formation

Network in the brainstem regulating arousal and attention.

Tectum

Midbrain structure orienting responses to visual and auditory stimuli.

Tegmentum

Midbrain area involved in movement and arousal; includes substantia nigra.

Thalamus

Forebrain relay station for sensory information (except smell).