Week 2 - Body Systems I

Integumentary system

• Integumen: “Covering or a shield” - Latin

• Contains - hair, skin, nails, sweat glands, etc.

• All skin shares the same structure - Main difference lies in differing in melanin composition

  Function:

  • Protection - barrier between the inner and outer environments

  • Temperature Regulation

  • Sensation

Integumentary system

• Skin

  • Epidermis

    • Stratum Corneum

    • Stratum Basale

  • Dermis

    • Appendages:

      • Hair

      • Sweat Glands

      • Sebaceous Glands

      • Nails

Two sections:

Epidermis - The outer layer that serves to protect

• Epithelial tissue

Dermis - serves to provide nutrients

• Dense irregular connective tissue

  • collagen & elastin fibres

  • nourish the deeper layers of the epidermis

Integumentary system

• Skin

  • Epidermis

    • Stratum Corneum

    • Stratum Basale

  • Dermis

    • Appendages:

      • Hair

      • Sweat Glands

      • Sebaceous Glands

      • Nails

• Extremely thin - max 1mm

• ‘epi’ - means “on top of”

• ‘Stratum’ - means a “cover”

Two layers of the epidermis:

• Stratum corneum - Superficial layer

  • ‘Corneum’ - means “hardened”

• Stratum basale - Deeper Layer

  • ‘Basale’ - means “base”

  • Contains ONE LAYER of actively dividing cells - keratinocytes

Integumentary system

• Skin

  • Epidermis

    • Stratum Corneum

    • Stratum Basale

  • Dermis

    • Appendages:

      • Hair

      • Sweat Glands

      • Sebaceous Glands

      • Nails

Basale’ - means “base”

Contains actively dividing cells - keratinocytes

• One Keratinocyte will split into two daughter cells.

  • One of the daughter keratinocytes is pushed further up, while the other stays to become a new dividing cell.

  • As the daughter cell moves through the layers up to the stratum corneum, they change their function.

Epidermis is avascular

• No blood supply, but vessels present adjacent provide nutrients to the deepest layer of the stratum basale for keratinocyte division

Integumentary system

• Skin

  • Epidermis

    • Stratum Corneum

    • Stratum Basale

  • Dermis

    • Appendages:

      • Hair

      • Sweat Glands

      • Sebaceous Glands

      • Nails

‘Corneum’ - means “hardened”

• 20-30 layers of dead keratinocytes, flat, dead cells

• Once keratinocytes reach the stratum corneum, they no longer receive blood supply, eventually dying and hardening into the outer layer.

  • Provides the skin keratin, contributing to the hard texture.

• Millions of dead cells shed every day

  • e.g dandruff

Epidermis is avascular, stratum corneum receives no nurtrients.

Integumentary system

• Skin

  • Epidermis - Keratinocytes

    • Stratum Corneum

    • Stratum Basale

  • Dermis

    • Appendages:

      • Hair

      • Sweat Glands

      • Sebaceous Glands

      • Nails

Are epithelial cells, form epithelial tissue of the epidermis.

• Most abundant call in epidermis

• Chock full of keratin

  • Keratin helps absorb vitamin D from sunlight

• Packed together

  • Dense packing helps limit the passage of substances (e.g water) into and out of the body

Integumentary system

• Skin

  • Epidermis - Dendritic/Langhern cells

    • Stratum Corneum

    • Stratum Basale

  • Dermis

    • Appendages:

      • Hair

      • Sweat Glands

      • Sebaceous Glands

      • Nails

Dendritic - Name given due to spider-like shape

• Aids digesting foreign substances

• Activators of the immune system

Integumentary system

• Skin

  • Epidermis - Tactile/Merkel cells

    • Stratum Corneum

    • Stratum Basale

  • Dermis

    • Appendages:

      • Hair

      • Sweat Glands

      • Sebaceous Glands

      • Nails

Found at the border of the epidermis & dermis.

• Disc like-structures

• Connected to sensory nerve endings/tactile receptors for touch

Integumentary system

• Skin

  • Epidermis - Melanocytes

    • Stratum Corneum

    • Stratum Basale

  • Dermis

    • Appendages:

      • Hair

      • Sweat Glands

      • Sebaceous Glands

      • Nails

• Produces melanin - pigmentation

  • The darker the skin, the greater melanin/melanosomes present. But no. menalocytes is constant across all skin types

• Melanin then wraps around keratinocytes, trapping and cupping their nucleus

• This protects keratinocytes from UV rays when absorbing Vitamin D from the sunlight

Integumentary system

• Skin

  • Epidermis

    • Stratum Corneum

    • Stratum Basale

  • Dermis

    • Appendages:

      • Hair

      • Sweat Glands

      • Sebaceous Glands

      • Nails

Dermis - serves to provide nutrients

• Dense irregular connective tissue

  • Collagen & elastin fibre

    • Tissue becomes strong (collagen) but flexible (elastin) in structure

• Vasculated & Innervated

• Nourishes the deeper layers of the epidermis (Stratum Basale)

• Contains appendages such as:

  • Hair follicles

  • Sweat glands

  • Sebaceous glands

Integumentary system

Skin

• Epidermis

  • Stratum Corneum

  • Stratum Basale

• Dermis

  • Appendages:

    • Hair

    • Sweat Glands

    • Sebaceous Glands

    • Nails

Formed by Keratin

• Found almost everywhere (sans palms, soles, lips, etc.)

• Helps detect sensation (crawling insects)

• Keeps warmth/prevents heat loss

• Protects head from trauma

Integumentary system

• Skin

  • Epidermis

    • Stratum Corneum

    • Stratum Basale

  • Dermis

    • Appendages:

      • Hair

      • Sweat Glands

      • Sebaceous Glands

      • Nails

Formed of myoepithelial cells (Muscle epithelial cells)

• Muscular - Are able to contract to eject sweat out of glands

  • Stimulated by sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight)

  Produces sweat:

  • Temperature regulation

  • Kills microbes on skin

  • Has low pH

Integumentary system

• Skin

  • Epidermis

    • Stratum Corneum

    • Stratum Basale

  • Dermis

    • Appendages:

      • Hair

      • Sweat Glands

      • Sebaceous Glands

      • Nails

Produces sebum:

• Sebum is oily

• Lubricates hair and skin

• Contains bactericide (like pesticide wards of bacterial infection)

Integumentary system

• Skin

  • Epidermis

    • Stratum Corneum

    • Stratum Basale

  • Dermis

    • Appendages:

      • Hair

      • Sweat Glands

      • Sebaceous Glands

      • Nails

Formed of keratin

• Protection

• Fine dexterity

Pseudo-Integumentary system

• Skin

  • Epidermis

  • Dermis

  • Hypodermis

Contains loose connective tissue - adipose tissue

• Deeper to the dermis

• Attaches dermis to deep fascia

• Vasculated & innervated

• Adipose tissue (fat):

  • Stores energy as fat

  • Provides insulation, thus helps retains heat

  • Shock absorption

• Enables the skin to slide around slightly without tearing muscles

Not actually part of the integumentary system

FUNCTIONS - Integumentary system

1. Protective barriers

   • Physical

     • Keratinocytes blocking foreign substances with tight packing

     • Melanin from melanocytes blocking UV ray absorption

   • Chemical

     • Sweat lowers pH to make is difficult for bacteria to survive

     • bactericide from sebum

   • Biological

     • Dendritic cells digesting foreign substances/initiating immune responses

2. Sensation

   • Touch, pressure, pain (noiciception) and temperature

3. Temperature regulation

   • Regulating blood flow to the skin, to radiate heat from blood

   • Heat loss through sweating

4. Vitamin D absorption/production

   • Keratinocytes

Skeletal System

• Contains - Bones, ligaments & cartilage

  Function:

  • Provides the base structure of the body

Skeletal System

• Bones

• Cartilage

  • Hyaline/articular

  • Elastic cartilage

  • Fibrocartilage

• Ligaments

Support

• provides a base frame for other body systems to attach and be supported by

Anchorage

• Skeletal muscles connect to bones via tendons, pulling the bones to facilitate movement

Protection

• The rigidity of bones allow them to protect other soft tissue/organs. (e.g skull protects bone, ribs protect heart & lungs)

Mineral storage

• Calcium & phosphate is stored within bones (calcium hydroxyapatite), which can be released when needed by other organs (Ca²⁺ & PO₄^3- ions)

  • Muscles and neurons use calcium to contract/propagate action

  • DNA requires phosphate ion (phosphodiester bonds in the sugar-phosphate backbone)

Hematopoiesis

• ‘hemato’ - blood

• ‘poiesis’ - Greek for “to make”

• Red bone marrow stored within the spongy bone is the cite of blood cell formation

• Usually occurs at the end of long bones

Fat storage

• Yellow bone marrow

• Stored usually in the middle shaft of bones

Hormone: osteocalcin

• Produced in bone

• Hormones aids with glucose homeostasis

Skeletal System

• Bones

• Cartilage

  • Hyaline/articular

  • Elastic cartilage

  • Fibrocartilage

• Ligaments

Softer than bones

Skeletal System

• Bones

• Cartilage

  • Hyaline/articular

  • Elastic cartilage

  • Fibrocartilage

• Ligaments

Provides flexibility and smoother surfaces at joints, lowering friction.

• Most abundant cartilage type

‘hyaline’ - Greek/latin for glassy

• Found at the end of bones meeting at a joint.

• Also found in growth plates on bones

• Cartilage of nose and rib to sternum connection

• Also found making up trachea, bronchi and larynx

Arthritis can arise with the breakdown of hyaline cartilage

Skeletal System

• Bones

• Cartilage

  • Hyaline/articular

  • Elastic cartilage

  • Fibrocartilage

• Ligaments

Contains much more elastin compared to other cartilage

• enables it to maintain original shape after being manipulated

Found in:

• Ear

• Eppiglottis

Skeletal System

• Bones

• Cartilage

  • Hyaline/articular

  • Elastic cartilage

  • Fibrocartilage

• Ligaments

Withstands much compressive & tensile force

• tensile force - pulling

Found at:

• sites of pressure & stretch

• Intervertebral discs

• pair of meniscus at knee

• pubic symphysis

  • helps bear the weight of the pelvis while also withstaning the pulling apart occuring during childbirth

Skeletal System

• Bones

• Cartilage

  • Hyaline

  • Elastic cartilage

  • Fibrocartilage

• Ligaments

Dense, regular connective tissue

• Extremely fibrous

Connects bone to bone, stabilising joints

• fibres run in one direction

  • Thus is able to withsitand tensile forces in the direction, preventing bones from being pulled apart easily

Muscular system

Responsible for movement!

Made of:

• Muscular tissue

• Connective Tissue

• Innervated nervous tissue

Muscular system

• Muscle Tissue

  • Skeletal Muscle

  • Smooth Muscle

  • Cardiac Muscle

• Connective Tissue

• Innervated Nervous tissue

• Deep fascia

Most of the muscular system:

• Responsible for movement

  • Movement occurs with cells containing myofilaments (actin & myosin) that slide over one another to create a contraction

Highly vascularised & innervated

Muscular system

• Muscle Tissue

  • Skeletal Muscle

  • Smooth Muscle - GI Tract

  • Cardiac muscle

• Connective Tissue - GI Tract

• Innervated Nervous tissue

• Deep fascia

4 Layers:

1. Serosa layer - Outer layer of connective tissue

   a. Membrane surrounding the GI tract

2. Muscularis layer - Next inner layer of smooth muscle cells

3. Submucosa layer - Next inner layer of connective tissue

4. Mucosa - Inner layer of epithelial tissue

   a. Simple epithelium to maximise ability to absorb nutrients from food

Muscular system

• Muscle Tissue

  • Skeletal Muscle

  • Smooth Muscle - Blood vessels

  • Cardiac muscle

• Connective Tissue

• Innervated Nervous tissue

• Deep fascia

4 Layers:

1. Tunica Adventitia/Externa - Outer layer of connective tissue

   a. ‘tunica’ - means “coating”

2. Tunica media - Next layer of smooth muscle cells

   a. thicker layer in arteries compared to veins

3. Tunica Intima - Inner layer of epithelial tissue

   a. Simple epithelium to maximise gas exchange/nutrient and waste exchange

Muscular system

• Muscle Tissue

  • Skeletal Muscle

  • Smooth Muscle - Smooth muscle cells

  • Cardiac muscle

• Connective Tissue

• Innervated Nervous tissue

• Deep fascia

• Involuntary control

• Not striated, can compress and stretch in any direction

• Single nucleus

Muscular system

• Muscle Tissue

  • Skeletal Muscle

  • Smooth Muscle

  • Cardiac muscle - Heart

• Connective Tissue - Heart

• Innervated Nervous tissue

• Deep fascia

Heart has a fibrous skeleton

• This fibrous skeleton supports entryways and exits of the heart

3 Layers:

1. Pericardium - Connective tissue

   a. Membrane surrounding the heart

2. Myocardium - Cardiac muscle tissue

3. Endocardium - Epithelial tissue

   a. In contact with blood, hence epithelial tissue

Muscular system

• Muscle Tissue

  • Skeletal Muscle

  • Smooth Muscle

  • Cardiac muscle - Myocardial cells

• Connective Tissue

• Innervated Nervous tissue

• Deep fascia

• Makes up the heart’s muscle

• Single nucleus

• Involuntary contraction

• Striated

• Cells connected via intercalated discs.

  • When one myocardial cell contracts, it pulls the neighbouring cell to initiate its contraction. Thus, there is a synchronous contraction occurring throughout the heart, a heartbeat.

Muscular system

• Muscle Tissue

  • Skeletal Muscles

  • Smooth Muscle

  • Cardiac Muscle

• Connective Tissue

• Innervated Nervous tissue

• Deep fascia

Levels of the Muscle Belly (Inner to Outer):

1. Actin & Myosin myofilaments within skeletal muscle cell

2. Skeletal Muscle cell

3. Endomysium - Connective tissue surrounding skeletal muscle cell

4. Fascicle - Groups of skeletal muscle cells each wrapped in endomysium

5. Perimysium - Connective tissue surrounding each fascicle

6. Epimysium - Connective tissue surrounding all fascicles in muscle belly

7. Tendon - Joining point of all inner connective tissue (endomysium, perimysium, epimysium) that links muscle to bone.

   a. Dense fibrous regular connective tissue.

   b. Links muscle directly into bone

All muscle is highly vascularised, however the tendons at the end of muscles have less blood supply.

Muscular system

• Muscle Tissue

  • Skeletal Muscle - skeletel muscle cells

  • Smooth Muscle

  • Cardiac Muscle

• Connective Tissue

• Innervated Nervous tissue

• Deep fascia

• Voluntary

• Multi-nucleated

• Striated

• Always has an attachment to bone (tendon)

Muscular system

• Muscle Tissue

  • Skeletal Muscle

  • Smooth Muscle

  • Cardiac Muscle

• Connective Tissue

• Innervated Nervous tissue

• Deep fascia

Dense irregular connective tissue.

• enables the fascia to change shape without tearing as muscles grow/shrink with age

• contains elastin fibres to help it recoil as the muscle relaxes

Wraps tightly around muscles

Dividing muscle and connecting to adjacent bones

Compartmentalises muscles in limbs

Nervous system

Functions as control system in tandem with endocrine system

• Rapid activation and deactivation

• Short term control - muscles and glands can react in milliseconds

1. Sensory input (perception)

   Sensory division - afferent pathway

2. Integration

   Within the brain

3. Motor output (response)

   Motor division - efferent pathway

Nervous system

• Central nervous system (CNS) - Brain

• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

  • Spinal Nerves

  • Cranial Nerves

• Nerves

Pathways:

• Sensory division (Afferent pathway)

• Motor division (Efferent pathway)

  • Somatic nervous system

  • Autonomic nervous system

    • Sympathetic nervous system

    • Parasympathetic nervous system

Interprets and provides meaning to any sensation.

• Sends information out to inititiate movement

Grey Matter: Cell bodies of brain neurons

White Matter: Fatty, axons that connect and facilitate communication between brain neurons, the wiring of the brain.

Nervous system

• Central nervous system (CNS) - Spinal cord

• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

  • Spinal Nerves

  • Cranial Nerves

• Nerves

Pathways:

• Sensory division (Afferent pathway)

• Motor division (Efferent pathway)

  • Somatic nervous system

  • Autonomic nervous system

    • Sympathetic nervous system

    • Parasympathetic nervous system

Constructed of:

• afferent (sensory) pathways, going up

• efferent (motor) pathways, going down

Nervous system

• Central nervous system (CNS)

• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

  • Spinal Nerves

  • Cranial Nerves

• Nerves

Pathways:

• Sensory division (Afferent pathway)

• Motor division (Efferent pathway)

  • Somatic nervous system

  • Autonomic nervous system

    • Sympathetic nervous system

    • Parasympathetic nervous system

Nerves directing exiting and entering the spinal cord.

Nervous system

• Central nervous system (CNS)

• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

  • Spinal Nerves

  • Cranial Nerves

• Nerves

Pathways:

• Sensory division (Afferent pathway)

• Motor division (Efferent pathway)

  • Somatic nervous system

  • Autonomic nervous system

    • Sympathetic nervous system

    • Parasympathetic nervous system

Nerves directing exiting and entering the brain stem or brain.

• There are 12 cranial nerves

Nervous system

• Central nervous system (CNS)

• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

  • Spinal Nerves

  • Cranial Nerves

• Nerves

Pathways:

• Sensory division (Afferent pathway)

• Motor division (Efferent pathway)

  • Somatic nervous system

  • Autonomic nervous system

    • Sympathetic nervous system

    • Parasympathetic nervous system

Levels of the Nerve (Inner to Outer):

1. Axons - send sensory information towards the spinal cord (afferent pathways) or motor information away from the spinal cord (efferent pathways)

2. Nerve or Neuron

3. Endoneurium - Connective tissue surrounding a specific neuron/nerve fibre

4. Fascicle - Groups of neurons/nerve fibres each wrapped in endomysium

5. Perineurium - Connective tissue surrounding each nerve fascicle

6. Epineurium - Connective tissue surrounding all fascicles in a nerve

All nerves are highly vascularised.

Fat cells present around nerve fascicles for shock absorption.

Nervous system

• Central nervous system (CNS)

• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

  • Spinal Nerves

  • Cranial Nerves

• Nerves

Pathways:

• Sensory division (Afferent pathway)

• Motor division (Efferent pathway)

  • Somatic nervous system

  • Autonomic nervous system

    • Sympathetic nervous system

    • Parasympathetic nervous system

Nerves that control voluntary muscle movement.

• Skeletal muscles

Nervous system

• Central nervous system (CNS)

• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

  • Spinal Nerves

  • Cranial Nerves

• Nerves

Pathways:

• Sensory division (Afferent pathway)

• Motor division (Efferent pathway)

  • Somatic nervous system

  • Autonomic nervous system

    • Sympathetic nervous system

    • Parasympathetic nervous system

Nerves that control involuntary muscle movement.

• Cardiac muscles & smooth muscle cells

Subdivided into two pathways that send, inhibitory and excitatory signals.

Nervous system

• Central nervous system (CNS)

• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

  • Spinal Nerves

  • Cranial Nerves

• Nerves

Pathways:

• Sensory division (Afferent pathway)

• Motor division (Efferent pathway)

  • Somatic nervous system

  • Autonomic nervous system

    • Sympathetic nervous system

    • Parasympathetic nervous system

Fight or flight.

Propagates excitatory responses.

Nervous system

• Central nervous system (CNS)

• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

  • Spinal Nerves

  • Cranial Nerves

• Nerves

Pathways:

• Sensory division (Afferent pathway)

• Motor division (Efferent pathway)

  • Somatic nervous system

  • Autonomic nervous system

    • Sympathetic nervous system

    • Parasympathetic nervous system

Rest and digest.

Propagates inhibitory responses.

Endocrine system

Functions as control system in tandem with nervous system

• Slow activation and deactivation

• Long-term control - completed with the use of hormones in the bloodstream

• Hormones travel through the bloodstream and attach to cell receptors to create changes

Endocrine system

• Brain

  • Pituitary gland

  • Hypothalamus

  • Pineal gland

• Neck

  • Thyroid

  • Parathyroid

• Thorax

  • Thymus gland

• Abdomen

  • Adrenal glands

  • Pancreas

• Pelvic region

  • Ovaries

  • Testicles

Some hormones released:

• Oxytocin to contract the uterus during childbirth

• Growth hormones

• Thyroid-stimulating hormones

Endocrine system

• Brain

  • Pituitary gland

  • Hypothalamus

  • Pineal gland

• Neck

  • Thyroid

  • Parathyroid

• Thorax

  • Thymus gland

• Abdomen

  • Adrenal glands

  • Pancreas

• Pelvic region

  • Ovaries

  • Testicles

Found very deep within the brain

Main function:

• Helps regulate circadian rhythm/sleep cycle

Endocrine system

• Brain

  • Pituitary gland

  • Hypothalamus

  • Pineal gland

• Neck

  • Thyroid

  • Parathyroid

• Thorax

  • Thymus gland

• Abdomen

  • Adrenal glands

  • Pancreas

• Pelvic region

  • Ovaries

  • Testicles

Thyroid

Some main functions:

• Helps regulate:

  • Body temperature

  • Weight

  • Energy levels

Goiter: Condition where there is extreme enlargement of the thyroid gland

Parathyroid

Some main functions:

• Helps regulate:

  • Calcium blood levels

Endocrine system

• Brain

  • Pituitary gland

  • Hypothalamus

  • Pineal gland

• Neck

  • Thyroid

  • Parathyroid

• Thorax

  • Thymus gland

• Abdomen

  • Adrenal glands

  • Pancreas

• Pelvic region

  • Ovaries

  • Testicles

Location:

• Deep to the sternum

• Just posterior to the manubrial-sternal joint

• Superior to the heart

Large in infants, shrinking to become fatty tissue as a person ages.

Thymus

Some main functions:

• Helps regulate:

  • Immune cell development & function

    • Hence, large as an infant when developing a strong immune system, slowly shrinking and dying off in adulthood and old age, where immune system is established

Endocrine system

• Brain

  • Pituitary gland

  • Hypothalamus

  • Pineal gland

• Neck

  • Thyroid

  • Parathyroid

• Thorax

  • Thymus gland

• Abdomen

  • Adrenal glands

  • Pancreas

• Pelvic region

  • Ovaries

  • Testicles

Location:

Left & right upper quadrants of the abdomen.

• In close contact with the duodenum (initial section of the small intestine)

  • The pancreas releases enzymes into the small intestine to aid digestion

  • The pancreas releases ions to balance the acidic pH of chyme that has exited the stomach.

  • Critical in regulating glucose levels.

    • Inability leads to diabetes

Endocrine system

• Brain

  • Pituitary gland

  • Hypothalamus

  • Pineal gland

• Neck

  • Thyroid

  • Parathyroid

• Thorax

  • Thymus gland

• Abdomen

  • Adrenal glands

  • Pancreas

• Pelvic region

  • Ovaries

  • Testicles

Location:

Directly superior to the kidneys.

Separately situated in left & right upper quadrants of the abdomen. Close to the posterior wall of the abdomen

• Produces hormone adrenaline (supplies sympathetic nervous system)

Paired organ

Endocrine system

• Brain

  • Pituitary gland

  • Hypothalamus

  • Pineal gland

• Neck

  • Thyroid

  • Parathyroid

• Thorax

  • Thymus gland

• Abdomen

  • Adrenal glands

  • Pancreas

• Pelvic region

  • Ovaries

  • Testicles

Location:

Deep within the pelvis, lateral to the uterus.

Some main functions:

• Helps regulate:

  • Ovulation

  • Menstrual cycle

  • Zygote conception

  • etc.

Paired organ

Endocrine system

• Brain

  • Pituitary gland

  • Hypothalamus

  • Pineal gland

• Neck

  • Thyroid

  • Parathyroid

• Thorax

  • Thymus gland

• Abdomen

  • Adrenal glands

  • Pancreas

• Pelvic region

  • Ovaries

  • Testicles

Location:

External to the pelvis, just inferior to the pubic bones.

Some main functions:

• Helps regulate:

  • Sperm containment

  • Male puberty

Paired organ

Cardiovascular System

• Cardio-: “Heart”

• -vascular: “blood vessels”

Plumps blood around the body

• Circulating nutrients, oxygen & waste products (CO₂)

• Bloodflow occurs in one direction

  • Blood pressure ensures one-way flow

  • Valves in veins prevent backflow

Cardiovascular System

• Heart

• Arteries

• Capillaries

• Veins

  • Skeletal muscle pump

  • Valves

Characteristics:

• Pulses

  • Carotid artery - Neck

  • Radial artery - Wrist

  • Brachial artery - Elbow

  • Femoral artery - Thigh

  • Dorsalis Pedis Artery - Foot

• Identifiable veins

  • Cephalic vein - Lateral to biceps

    • Medial cubitan vein - connects cephalic and basiclic veins

  • Basilic vein - Medial to biceps

  • Great saphenous vein - Medial to thigh

  • Small saphenous vein - Begins lateral to foot, travelling posteriorly up to the knee

• Moves blood away from the heart

• Oxygenated Blood

• Thick, muscular wall

  • Muscle ensures the arteries do not burst due to the high blood pressure.

  • Muscles allow vasodilation and vasoconstriction to redirect bloodflow

Cardiovascular System

• Heart

• Arteries

• Capillaries

• Veins

  • Skeletal muscle pump

Characteristics:

• Pulses

  • Carotid artery - Neck

  • Radial artery - Wrist

  • Brachial artery - Elbow

  • Femoral artery - Thigh

  • Dorsalis Pedis Artery - Foot

• Identifiable veins

  • Cephalic vein - Lateral to biceps

    • Medial cubitan vein - connects cephalic and basiclic veins

  • Basilic vein - Medial to biceps

  • Great saphenous vein - Medial to thigh

  • Small saphenous vein - Begins lateral to foot, travelling posteriorly up to the knee

Nutrient & gas exchange.

• Diameter is one-cell thick, making the vessels very fragile.

  • Thus, blood must have low pressure to not rupture vessels

• Bloodflow is slow, under low pressure

Cardiovascular System

• Heart

• Arteries

• Capillaries

• Veins

  • Skeletal muscle pump

  • Valves

Characteristics:

• Pulses

  • Carotid artery - Neck

  • Radial artery - Wrist

  • Brachial artery - Elbow

  • Femoral artery - Thigh

  • Dorsalis Pedis Artery - Foot

• Identifiable veins

  • Cephalic vein - Lateral to biceps

    • Medial cubitan vein - connects cephalic and basiclic veins

  • Basilic vein - Medial to biceps

  • Great saphenous vein - Medial to thigh

  • Small saphenous vein - Begins lateral to foot, travelling posteriorly up to the knee

• Moves blood back to the heart

• Deoxygenated Blood

• Extremely low blood pressure

  • Capillaries already have low blood pressure, so the blood entering the veins has even lower pressure (to follow the pressure gradient from high to low)

• Thin, valved vessel walls

  • Little muscle is needed to strengthen the vein walls as blood pressure is so low

Cardiovascular System

• Heart

• Arteries

• Capillaries

• Veins

  • Skeletal muscle pump

  • Valves

Characteristics:

• Pulses

  • Carotid artery - Neck

  • Radial artery - Wrist

  • Brachial artery - Elbow

  • Femoral artery - Thigh

  • Dorsalis Pedis Artery - Foot

• Identifiable veins

  • Cephalic vein - Lateral to biceps

    • Medial cubitan vein - connects cephalic and basiclic veins

  • Basilic vein - Medial to biceps

  • Great saphenous vein - Medial to thigh

  • Small saphenous vein - Begins lateral to foot, travelling posteriorly up to the knee

Skeletal muscle pump

• When moving skeletal muscles, the muscle bellies push against veins and push blood back towards the heart.

Valves

• Veins are lined with one-way valves

• When skeletal muscles push against veins, blood is squeezed in both directions

• One-way valve ensures blood does not travel backwards

Cardiovascular System

• Heart

• Arteries

• Capillaries

• Veins

  • Skeletal muscle pump

  • Valves

Characteristics:

• Pulses

  • Carotid artery - Neck

  • Radial artery - Wrist

  • Brachial artery - Elbow

  • Femoral artery - Thigh

  • Dorsalis Pedis Artery - Foot

• Identifiable veins

  • Cephalic vein - Lateral to biceps

    • Medial cubitan vein - connects cephalic and basiclic veins

  • Basilic vein - Medial to biceps

  • Great saphenous vein - Medial to thigh

  • Small saphenous vein - Begins lateral to foot, travelling posteriorly up to the knee

Found in arteries, as they have high blood pressure in sync with the heart.

• Deeper within the tissue, due to being protected with muscles, so can be difficult to find

• Some areas, the artery must travel more superficially to access an area of the body

• If there is a nearby solid structure (i.e bone), then pulse can be palpated

Cardiovascular System

• Heart

• Arteries

• Capillaries

• Veins

  • Skeletal muscle pump

  • Valves

Characteristics:

• Pulses

  • Carotid artery - Neck

  • Radial artery - Wrist

  • Brachial artery - Elbow

  • Femoral artery - Thigh

  • Dorsalis Pedis Artery - Foot

• Identifiable veins

  • Cephalic vein - Lateral to biceps

    • Medial cubitan vein - connects cephalic and basiclic veins

  • Basilic vein - Medial to biceps

  • Great saphenous vein - Medial to thigh

  • Small saphenous vein - Begins lateral to foot, travelling posteriorly up to the knee

Cardiovascular System

• Heart

• Arteries

• Capillaries

• Veins

  • Skeletal muscle pump

  • Valves

Characteristics:

• Pulses

  • Carotid artery - Neck

  • Radial artery - Wrist

  • Brachial artery - Elbow

  • Femoral artery - Thigh

  • Dorsalis Pedis Artery - Foot

• Identifiable veins

  • Cephalic vein - Lateral to biceps

    • Medial cubitan vein - connects cephalic and basiclic veins

  • Basilic vein - Medial to biceps

  • Great saphenous vein - Medial to thigh

  • Small saphenous vein - Begins lateral to foot, travelling posteriorly up to the knee

Cardiovascular System

• Heart

• Arteries

• Capillaries

• Veins

  • Skeletal muscle pump

  • Valves

Characteristics:

• Pulses

  • Carotid artery - Neck

  • Radial artery - Wrist

  • Brachial artery - Elbow

  • Femoral artery - Thigh

  • Dorsalis Pedis Artery - Foot

• Identifiable veins

  • Cephalic vein - Lateral to biceps

    • Medial cubitan vein - connects cephalic and basiclic veins

  • Basilic vein - Medial to biceps

  • Great saphenous vein - Medial to thigh

  • Small saphenous vein - Begins lateral to foot, travelling posteriorly up to the knee

Cardiovascular System

• Heart

• Arteries

• Capillaries

• Veins

  • Skeletal muscle pump

  • Valves

Characteristics:

• Pulses

  • Carotid artery - Neck

  • Radial artery - Wrist

  • Brachial artery - Elbow

  • Femoral artery - Thigh

  • Dorsalis Pedis Artery - Foot

• Identifiable veins

  • Cephalic vein - Lateral to biceps

    • Medial cubitan vein - connects cephalic and basiclic veins

  • Basilic vein - Medial to biceps

  • Great saphenous vein - Medial to thigh

  • Small saphenous vein - Begins lateral to foot, travelling posteriorly up to the knee

Identifiable veins.

• Found superficial

  • e.g Superficial to deep fascia

• Used to draw blood

  • low pressure means less risk of bleeding out

• Used to insert IV drips

  • Enables nutrients to travel back to the heart and be pumped out to the rest of the body

Cardiovascular System

• Heart

• Arteries

• Capillaries

• Veins

  • Skeletal muscle pump

  • Valves

Characteristics:

• Pulses

  • Carotid artery - Neck

  • Radial artery - Wrist

  • Brachial artery - Elbow

  • Femoral artery - Thigh

  • Dorsalis Pedis Artery - Foot

• Identifiable veins

  • Cephalic vein - Lateral to biceps

    • Medial cubital vein - connects cephalic and basilic veins

  • Basilic vein - Medial to biceps

  • Great saphenous vein - Medial to thigh

  • Small saphenous vein - Begins lateral to foot, travelling posteriorly up to the knee

Cardiovascular System

• Heart

• Arteries

• Capillaries

• Veins

  • Skeletal muscle pump

  • Valves

Characteristics:

• Pulses

  • Carotid artery - Neck

  • Radial artery - Wrist

  • Brachial artery - Elbow

  • Femoral artery - Thigh

  • Dorsalis Pedis Artery - Foot

• Identifiable veins

  • Cephalic vein - Lateral to biceps

    • Medial cubitan vein - connects cephalic and basiclic veins

  • Basilic vein - Medial to biceps

  • Great saphenous vein - Medial to thigh

  • Small saphenous vein - Begins lateral to foot, travelling posteriorly up to the knee

Cardiovascular System

• Heart

• Arteries

• Capillaries

• Veins

  • Skeletal muscle pump

  • Valves

Characteristics:

• Pulses

  • Carotid artery - Neck

  • Radial artery - Wrist

  • Brachial artery - Elbow

  • Femoral artery - Thigh

  • Dorsalis Pedis Artery - Foot

• Identifiable veins

  • Cephalic vein - Lateral to biceps

    • Medial cubitan vein - connects cephalic and basiclic veins

  • Basilic vein - Medial to biceps

  • Great saphenous vein - Medial to thigh

  • Small saphenous vein - Begins lateral to foot, travelling posteriorly up to the knee

Upper chambers: Atria

Lower chambers: Ventricles

Valves present between chambers/exit and entry points to ensure one-way flow

Blood travels:

1. Right atrium

2. Past tricuspid valve

3. Into right ventricle

4. Past the pulmonary valve

5. Out through the pulmonary trunk

6. Into the pulmonary arteries and oxygenated in lungs

7. Back to heart through pulmonary veins

8. Into the left atrium

9. Past the bicuspid/mitral valve

10. Into left ventricle

11. Pumped out past the aortic valve

12. Into aorta to be distributed around the body

Cardiovascular System

• Heart

  • Auscultation

Auscultation:

• To hear the heart with a stethoscope

Heartbeat:

• Sound is created when blood rushes against closed valves

• Ensures valves are working accordingly and blood is rushing in the correct direction