Week 2 - Body Systems I

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34 Terms

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Integumentary system

Integumen: “Covering or a shield” - Latin
Contains - hair, skin, nails, sweat glands, etc.
All skin shares the same structure - Main difference lies in differing in melanin composition
Function:
- Protection - barrier between the inner and outer environments
- Temperature Regulation
- Sensation

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Integumentary system

Skin

Two sections:

Epidermis - The outer layer that serves to protect

Epithelial tissue

Dermis - serves to provide nutrients

Dense irregular connective tissue
- collagen & elastin fibres
- nourish the deeper layers of the epidermis

<p><strong><em><u>Two sections:</u></em></strong></p><p><strong>Epidermis</strong> - The outer layer that serves to <u>protect</u></p><ul><li><p>Epithelial tissue</p></li></ul><p><strong>Dermis</strong> - serves to provide nutrients</p><ul><li><p>Dense irregular connective tissue</p><ul><li><p>collagen & elastin fibres</p></li><li><p>nourish the deeper layers of the epidermis</p></li></ul></li></ul><img src="https://knowt-user-attachments.s3.amazonaws.com/258c1dc6-6c59-4f19-aeac-27f9b7976504.png" data-width="25%" data-align="center" alt="Epidermis"><img src="https://knowt-user-attachments.s3.amazonaws.com/9667d072-e7d2-4e87-9f93-9d67c0285c9b.png" data-width="25%" data-align="center" alt="Dermis"><p></p>

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Integumentary system

Skin
- Epidermis
  - Stratum Corneum
  - Stratum Basale
- Dermis
  - Appendages:
    - Hair
    - Sweat Glands
    - Sebaceous Glands
    - Nails

Extremely thin - max 1mm
‘epi’ - means “on top of”
‘Stratum’ - means a “cover”

Two layers of the epidermis:

Stratum corneum - Superficial layer
- ‘Corneum’ - means “hardened”

Stratum basale - Deeper Layer
- ‘Basale’ - means “base”
- Contains ONE LAYER of actively dividing cells - keratinocytes

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Integumentary system

Skin
- Epidermis
  - Stratum Corneum
  - Stratum Basale
- Dermis
  - Appendages:
    - Hair
    - Sweat Glands
    - Sebaceous Glands
    - Nails

Basale’ - means “base”

Contains actively dividing cells - keratinocytes

One Keratinocyte will split into two daughter cells.
- One of the daughter keratinocytes is pushed further up, while the other stays to become a new dividing cell.
- As the daughter cell moves through the layers up to the stratum corneum, they change their function.

Epidermis is avascular

No blood supply, but vessels present adjacent provide nutrients to the deepest layer of the stratum basale for keratinocyte division

<p><em><u>Basale’</u></em> - means “base”</p><p>Contains actively dividing cells - <em><mark data-color="yellow" style="background-color: yellow; color: inherit;">keratinocytes</mark></em></p><ul><li><p>One Keratinocyte will split into two daughter cells.</p><ul><li><p>One of the daughter keratinocytes is pushed further up, while the other stays to become a new dividing cell.</p></li><li><p>As the <u>daughter cell moves through the layers up to the stratum corneum</u>, they change their function.</p></li></ul></li></ul><p></p><p><strong><em><mark data-color="blue" style="background-color: blue; color: inherit;"><u>Epidermis is avascular</u></mark></em></strong></p><ul><li><p>No blood supply, but vessels present adjacent provide nutrients to the deepest layer of the stratum basale for keratinocyte division</p></li></ul><p></p>

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Integumentary system

Skin
- Epidermis
  - Stratum Corneum
  - Stratum Basale
- Dermis
  - Appendages:
    - Hair
    - Sweat Glands
    - Sebaceous Glands
    - Nails

‘Corneum’ - means “hardened”

20-30 layers of dead keratinocytes, flat, dead cells
Once keratinocytes reach the stratum corneum, they no longer receive blood supply, eventually dying and hardening into the outer layer.
- Provides the skin keratin, contributing to the hard texture.
Millions of dead cells shed every day
- e.g dandruff

Epidermis is avascular, stratum corneum receives no nurtrients.

<p><em><u>‘Corneum’</u></em> - means “hardened”</p><ul><li><p>20-30 layers of <strong>dead keratinocytes</strong>, flat, dead cells</p></li><li><p>Once keratinocytes reach the stratum corneum, they <u>no longer receive blood supply</u>, eventually dying and hardening into the outer layer.</p><ul><li><p>Provides the skin keratin, contributing to the hard texture.</p></li></ul></li><li><p>Millions of dead cells shed every day</p><ul><li><p>e.g dandruff</p></li></ul></li></ul><p></p><p><strong><em><mark data-color="blue" style="background-color: blue; color: inherit;"><u>Epidermis is avascular, stratum corneum receives no nurtrients.</u></mark></em></strong></p><p></p>

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Integumentary system

Skin
- Epidermis - Keratinocytes
  - Stratum Corneum
  - Stratum Basale
- Dermis
  - Appendages:
    - Hair
    - Sweat Glands
    - Sebaceous Glands
    - Nails

Are epithelial cells, form epithelial tissue of the epidermis.

Most abundant call in epidermis
Chock full of keratin
- Keratin helps absorb vitamin D from sunlight
Packed together
- Dense packing helps limit the passage of substances (e.g water) into and out of the body

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Integumentary system

Skin
- Epidermis - Dendritic/Langhern cells
  - Stratum Corneum
  - Stratum Basale
- Dermis
  - Appendages:
    - Hair
    - Sweat Glands
    - Sebaceous Glands
    - Nails

Dendritic - Name given due to spider-like shape

Aids digesting foreign substances
Activators of the immune system

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Integumentary system

Skin
- Epidermis - Tactile/Merkel cells
  - Stratum Corneum
  - Stratum Basale
- Dermis
  - Appendages:
    - Hair
    - Sweat Glands
    - Sebaceous Glands
    - Nails

Found at the border of the epidermis & dermis.

Disc like-structures
Connected to sensory nerve endings/tactile receptors for touch

<p>Found at the <u>border of the epidermis & dermis</u>.</p><ul><li><p>Disc like-structures</p></li><li><p>Connected to sensory nerve endings/tactile receptors for touch</p></li></ul><p></p>

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Integumentary system

Skin
- Epidermis - Melanocytes
  - Stratum Corneum
  - Stratum Basale
- Dermis
  - Appendages:
    - Hair
    - Sweat Glands
    - Sebaceous Glands
    - Nails

Produces melanin - pigmentation
- The darker the skin, the greater melanin/melanosomes present. But no. menalocytes is constant across all skin types
Melanin then wraps around keratinocytes, trapping and cupping their nucleus
This protects keratinocytes from UV rays when absorbing Vitamin D from the sunlight

<ul><li><p>Produces <strong>melanin - pigmentation</strong></p><ul><li><p>The darker the skin, the greater melanin/melanosomes present. But no. menalocytes is constant across all skin types</p></li></ul></li><li><p>Melanin then wraps around keratinocytes, trapping and cupping their nucleus</p></li><li><p>This protects keratinocytes from UV rays when absorbing Vitamin D from the sunlight</p></li></ul><p></p>

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Integumentary system

Skin
- Epidermis
  - Stratum Corneum
  - Stratum Basale
- Dermis
  - Appendages:
    - Hair
    - Sweat Glands
    - Sebaceous Glands
    - Nails

Dermis - serves to provide nutrients

Dense irregular connective tissue
- Collagen & elastin fibre
  - Tissue becomes strong (collagen) but flexible (elastin) in structure
Vasculated & Innervated
Nourishes the deeper layers of the epidermis (Stratum Basale)
Contains appendages such as:
- Hair follicles
- Sweat glands
- Sebaceous glands

<p><strong>Dermis</strong> - serves to provide nutrients</p><ul><li><p><u>Dense irregular connective tissue</u></p><ul><li><p>Collagen & elastin fibre</p><ul><li><p>Tissue becomes strong (collagen) but flexible (elastin) in structure</p></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><p><strong><em><mark data-color="blue" style="background-color: blue; color: inherit;"><u>Vasculated & Innervated</u></mark></em></strong></p></li><li><p><strong>Nourishes</strong> the deeper layers of the epidermis (Stratum Basale)</p></li><li><p>Contains appendages such as:</p><ul><li><p>Hair follicles</p></li><li><p>Sweat glands</p></li><li><p>Sebaceous glands</p></li></ul></li></ul><p></p>

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Integumentary system

Skin

Epidermis
- Stratum Corneum
- Stratum Basale
Dermis
- Appendages:
  - Hair
  - Sweat Glands
  - Sebaceous Glands
  - Nails

Formed by Keratin

Found almost everywhere (sans palms, soles, lips, etc.)

Helps detect sensation (crawling insects)
Keeps warmth/prevents heat loss
Protects head from trauma

<p>Formed by <strong><em><u>Keratin</u></em></strong></p><ul><li><p>Found almost everywhere (sans palms, soles, lips, etc.)</p></li></ul><ul><li><p>Helps detect sensation (crawling insects)</p></li><li><p>Keeps warmth/prevents heat loss</p></li><li><p>Protects head from trauma</p></li></ul><p></p>

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Integumentary system

Skin
- Epidermis
  - Stratum Corneum
  - Stratum Basale
- Dermis
  - Appendages:
    - Hair
    - Sweat Glands
    - Sebaceous Glands
    - Nails

Formed of myoepithelial cells (Muscle epithelial cells)

Muscular - Are able to contract to eject sweat out of glands
- Stimulated by sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight)
Produces sweat:
- Temperature regulation
- Kills microbes on skin
- Has low pH

<p>Formed of <span><u>myoepithelial</u></span><u> cells</u> (Muscle epithelial cells)</p><ul><li><p>Muscular - Are able to contract to eject sweat out of glands</p><ul><li><p>Stimulated by sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight)</p></li></ul><p>Produces <strong><u>sweat</u></strong>:</p><ul><li><p><strong>Temperature</strong> regulation</p></li><li><p>Kills <strong>microbes</strong> on skin</p></li><li><p>Has <strong>low pH</strong></p></li></ul></li></ul><p></p>

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Integumentary system

Skin
- Epidermis
  - Stratum Corneum
  - Stratum Basale
- Dermis
  - Appendages:
    - Hair
    - Sweat Glands
    - Sebaceous Glands
    - Nails

Produces sebum:

Sebum is oily
Lubricates hair and skin
Contains bactericide (like pesticide wards of bacterial infection)

<p>Produces <strong><em><u>sebum:</u></em></strong></p><ul><li><p><strong>Sebum is oily</strong></p></li><li><p><strong>Lubricates</strong> hair and skin</p></li><li><p>Contains <strong>bactericide</strong> (like pesticide wards of bacterial infection)</p></li></ul><p></p>

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Integumentary system

Skin
- Epidermis
  - Stratum Corneum
  - Stratum Basale
- Dermis
  - Appendages:
    - Hair
    - Sweat Glands
    - Sebaceous Glands
    - Nails

Formed of keratin

Protection
Fine dexterity

<p>Formed of <strong><u>keratin</u></strong></p><ul><li><p>Protection</p></li><li><p>Fine dexterity</p></li></ul><p></p>

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Pseudo-Integumentary system

Skin
- Epidermis
- Dermis
- Hypodermis

Contains loose connective tissue - adipose tissue

Deeper to the dermis
Attaches dermis to deep fascia
Vasculated & innervated
Adipose tissue (fat):
- Stores energy as fat
- Provides insulation, thus helps retains heat
- Shock absorption
Enables the skin to slide around slightly without tearing muscles

Not actually part of the integumentary system

<p>Contains <u>loose connective tissue</u> - <strong>adipose tissue</strong></p><ul><li><p>Deeper to the dermis</p></li><li><p>Attaches dermis to deep fascia</p></li><li><p><strong><em><mark data-color="blue" style="background-color: blue; color: inherit;"><u>Vasculated & innervated</u></mark></em></strong></p></li><li><p>Adipose tissue (fat):</p><ul><li><p>Stores <strong><u>energy</u></strong> as fat</p></li><li><p>Provides <strong><u>insulation</u></strong>, thus helps retains heat</p></li><li><p>Shock <strong><u>absorption</u></strong></p></li></ul></li><li><p>Enables the skin to slide around slightly without tearing muscles</p></li></ul><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><strong><em><mark data-color="#NaNNaNNaN" style="color: inherit;"><u>Not actually part of the integumentary system</u></mark></em></strong></span></p>

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FUNCTIONS - Integumentary system

Protective barriers
- Physical
  - Keratinocytes blocking foreign substances with tight packing
  - Melanin from melanocytes blocking UV ray absorption
- Chemical
  - Sweat lowers pH to make is difficult for bacteria to survive
  - bactericide from sebum
- Biological
  - Dendritic cells digesting foreign substances/initiating immune responses
Sensation
- Touch, pressure, pain (noiciception) and temperature
Temperature regulation
- Regulating blood flow to the skin, to radiate heat from blood
- Heat loss through sweating
Vitamin D absorption/production
- Keratinocytes

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Skeletal System

Contains - Bones, ligaments & cartilage
Function:
- Provides the base structure of the body

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Skeletal System

Bones
Cartilage
- Hyaline/articular
- Elastic cartilage
- Fibrocartilage
Ligaments

Support

provides a base frame for other body systems to attach and be supported by

Anchorage

Skeletal muscles connect to bones via tendons, pulling the bones to facilitate movement

Protection

The rigidity of bones allow them to protect other soft tissue/organs. (e.g skull protects bone, ribs protect heart & lungs)

Mineral storage

Calcium & phosphate is stored within bones (calcium hydroxyapatite), which can be released when needed by other organs (Ca²⁺ & PO₄^3- ions)
- Muscles and neurons use calcium to contract/propagate action
- DNA requires phosphate ion (phosphodiester bonds in the sugar-phosphate backbone)

Hematopoiesis

‘hemato’ - blood
‘poiesis’ - Greek for “to make”
Red bone marrow stored within the spongy bone is the cite of blood cell formation
Usually occurs at the end of long bones

Fat storage

Yellow bone marrow
Stored usually in the middle shaft of bones

Hormone: osteocalcin

Produced in bone
Hormones aids with glucose homeostasis

<p><strong><mark data-color="yellow" style="background-color: yellow; color: inherit;">Support</mark></strong></p><ul><li><p>provides a base frame for other body systems to attach and be supported by</p></li></ul><p><strong><mark data-color="yellow" style="background-color: yellow; color: inherit;">Anchorage</mark></strong></p><ul><li><p>Skeletal muscles connect to bones via tendons, pulling the bones to facilitate movement</p></li></ul><p><strong><mark data-color="yellow" style="background-color: yellow; color: inherit;">Protection</mark></strong></p><ul><li><p>The rigidity of bones allow them to protect other soft tissue/organs. (e.g skull protects bone, ribs protect heart & lungs)</p></li></ul><p><strong><mark data-color="yellow" style="background-color: yellow; color: inherit;">Mineral storage</mark></strong></p><ul><li><p><strong>Calcium</strong> & <strong>phosphate</strong> is stored within bones (calcium hydroxyapatite), which can be released when needed by other organs (Ca<sup>2+</sup> & PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3-</sup> ions)</p><ul><li><p><strong>Muscles and neurons</strong> use calcium to contract/propagate action</p></li><li><p><strong>DNA</strong> requires phosphate ion (phosphodiester bonds in the sugar-phosphate backbone)</p></li></ul></li></ul><p><strong><mark data-color="yellow" style="background-color: yellow; color: inherit;">Hematopoiesis</mark></strong></p><ul><li><p><em><u>‘hemato’</u></em> - blood</p></li><li><p><em><u>‘poiesis’</u></em> - Greek for “to make”</p></li><li><p><strong>Red bone marrow</strong> stored within the spongy bone is the cite of blood cell formation</p></li><li><p>Usually occurs at the <strong>end</strong> of long bones</p></li></ul><p><strong><mark data-color="yellow" style="background-color: yellow; color: inherit;">Fat storage</mark></strong></p><ul><li><p><strong>Yellow bone marrow</strong></p></li><li><p>Stored usually in the middle <strong>shaft</strong> of bones</p></li></ul><p><strong><mark data-color="yellow" style="background-color: yellow; color: inherit;">Hormone: </mark></strong><mark data-color="yellow" style="background-color: yellow; color: inherit;">osteocalcin</mark></p><ul><li><p>Produced in bone</p></li><li><p>Hormones aids with <strong>glucose homeostasis</strong></p></li></ul><img src="https://knowt-user-attachments.s3.amazonaws.com/f7284ce7-8a4c-4e3a-bf7d-2e4bf183788f.png" data-width="100%" data-align="center" alt="ayo stop mogging me"><p></p>

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Skeletal System

Bones
Cartilage
- Hyaline/articular
- Elastic cartilage
- Fibrocartilage
Ligaments

Softer than bones

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Skeletal System

Bones
Cartilage
- Hyaline/articular
- Elastic cartilage
- Fibrocartilage
Ligaments

Provides flexibility and smoother surfaces at joints, lowering friction.

Most abundant cartilage type

‘hyaline’ - Greek/latin for glassy

Found at the end of bones meeting at a joint.
Also found in growth plates on bones
Cartilage of nose and rib to sternum connection
Also found making up trachea, bronchi and larynx

Arthritis can arise with the breakdown of hyaline cartilage

<p>Provides flexibility and smoother surfaces at joints, lowering friction.</p><ul><li><p>Most abundant cartilage type</p></li></ul><p><em><u>‘hyaline’</u></em> - Greek/latin for glassy</p><ul><li><p>Found at the end of bones meeting at a joint.</p></li><li><p>Also found in <u>growth plates</u> on bones</p></li><li><p>Cartilage of <u>nose</u> and <u>rib to sternum</u> connection</p></li><li><p>Also found making up <u>trachea, bronchi and larynx</u></p></li></ul><p>Arthritis can arise with the breakdown of hyaline cartilage</p><p></p>

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Skeletal System

Bones
Cartilage
- Hyaline/articular
- Elastic cartilage
- Fibrocartilage
Ligaments

Contains much more elastin compared to other cartilage

enables it to maintain original shape after being manipulated

Found in:

Ear
Eppiglottis

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Skeletal System

Bones
Cartilage
- Hyaline/articular
- Elastic cartilage
- Fibrocartilage
Ligaments

Withstands much compressive & tensile force

tensile force - pulling

Found at:

sites of pressure & stretch
Intervertebral discs
pair of meniscus at knee
pubic symphysis
- helps bear the weight of the pelvis while also withstaning the pulling apart occuring during childbirth

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Skeletal System

Bones
Cartilage
- Hyaline
- Elastic cartilage
- Fibrocartilage
Ligaments

Dense, regular connective tissue

Extremely fibrous

Connects bone to bone, stabilising joints

fibres run in one direction
- Thus is able to withsitand tensile forces in the direction, preventing bones from being pulled apart easily

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Muscular system

Responsible for movement!

Made of:

Muscular tissue
Connective Tissue
Innervated nervous tissue

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Muscular system

Muscle Tissue
- Skeletal Muscle
- Smooth Muscle
- Cardiac Muscle
Connective Tissue
Innervated Nervous tissue

Most of the muscular system:

Responsible for movement
- Movement occurs with cells containing myofilaments (actin & myosin) that slide over one another to create a contraction

Highly vascularised & innervated

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Muscular system

Muscle Tissue
- Skeletal Muscle
- Smooth Muscle
- Cardiac Muscle
Connective Tissue
Innervated Nervous tissue

Voluntary

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Muscular system

Muscle Tissue
- Skeletal Muscle
- Smooth Muscle - GI Tract
- Cardiac muscle
Connective Tissue - GI Tract
Innervated Nervous tissue

4 Layers:

Serosa layer - Outer layer of connective tissue
a. Membrane surrounding the GI tract
Muscularis layer - Next inner layer of smooth muscle cells
Submucosa layer - Next inner layer of connective tissue
Mucosa - Inner layer of epithelial tissue
a. Simple epithelium to maximise ability to absorb nutrients from food

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Muscular system

Muscle Tissue
- Skeletal Muscle
- Smooth Muscle - Blood vessels
- Cardiac muscle
Connective Tissue
Innervated Nervous tissue

4 Layers:

S..
.
.

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Muscular system

Muscle Tissue
- Skeletal Muscle
- Smooth Muscle - Smooth muscle cells
- Cardiac muscle
Connective Tissue
Innervated Nervous tissue

Involuntary control
Not striated
Single nucleus

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Muscular system

Muscle Tissue
- Skeletal Muscle
- Smooth Muscle
- Cardiac muscle - Heart
Connective Tissue - Heart
Innervated Nervous tissue

Heart has a fibrous skeleton

This fibrous skeleton supports entryways and exits of the heart

3 Layers:

Pericardium - Connective tissue
a. Membrane surrounding the heart
Myocardium - Cardiac muscle tissue
Endocardium - Epithelial tissue
a. In contact with blood, hence epithelial tissue

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Muscular system

Muscle Tissue
- Skeletal Muscle
- Smooth Muscle
- Cardiac muscle - Myocardial cells
Connective Tissue
Innervated Nervous tissue

Makes up the heart’s muscle
Single nucleus
Involuntary contraction
Striated

Cells connected via intercalated discs.
- When one myocardial cell contracts, it pulls the neighbouring cell to initiate its contraction. Thus, there is a synchronous contraction occurring throughout the heart, a heartbeat.

<ul><li><p>Makes up the heart’s muscle</p></li><li><p>Single nucleus</p></li><li><p>Involuntary contraction</p></li><li><p>Striated</p></li></ul><p></p><ul><li><p>Cells connected via <strong><em><mark data-color="yellow" style="background-color: yellow; color: inherit;">intercalated discs</mark></em></strong>.</p><ul><li><p>When one myocardial cell contracts, it pulls the neighbouring cell to initiate its contraction. Thus, there is a synchronous contraction occurring throughout the heart, <strong><em><mark data-color="red" style="background-color: red; color: inherit;">a heartbeat</mark></em></strong>.</p></li></ul></li></ul><p></p><p></p><img src="https://knowt-user-attachments.s3.amazonaws.com/13184d03-a0b7-4ab7-a0f6-37de37f95035.png" data-width="50%" data-align="center"><img src="https://knowt-user-attachments.s3.amazonaws.com/ae438783-967f-49cc-a52d-0770fc787570.png" data-width="50%" data-align="center" alt="zoom into intercalated discs"><p></p>

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