ANTHRCUL 101 - Exam 2

Uniformitarianism

The idea that geologic changes we observe today are part of a continuous and uniform set of processes.

Species

A group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding.

What is “The Modern Synthesis”?

The basis for the unified theory of evolution (Darwin). A view of evolution that accepts the existence of four genetics-based processes:

1. Mutation

2. Natural Selection

3. Gene Flow

4. Genetic Drift

The key to this specific theory was that it said that evolution can only be measured across generations within a population.

Why is the concept of taxonomy a problem?

It attempted to link “races” to separate species, and thus posited that there were degrees of “humanness” based off of European standards.

What is a phylogeny?

Describes relationships between descendants and ancestors. Constructed with morphological, molecular, and fossil data.

What are three non-genetic systems of inheritance?

Epigenetic, Behavioral, Symbolic

Natural Selection

Natural selection is a key mechanism of evolution where individuals with advantageous traits have a higher chance of survival and reproduction. This process causes gradual changes in a population's genetic makeup, leading to adaptations that enhance fitness for specific environments.

Directional Selection

A type of natural selection that occurs when individuals with traits on one side of the average for their population are more likely to survive or reproduce. The allele shifts IN ONE DIRECTION.

Balanced Polymorphism

A genetic phenomenon where multiple forms of a phenotype exist in a population at a stable frequency. Individuals carrying both versions are better able to survive than those who have two copies of either version alone.

EX: Sickle Cell Anemia

Mutation

Mechanism of genetic change. A change in a sequence of DNA (nucleotide).

Random Genetic Drift

The change in frequency of an existing gene variant in the population due to random chance.

Gene Flow

Any movement of individuals, and/or the genetic material they carry, from one population to another. Transfer of genes from one subpopulation or population to another.

Why is Sickle Cell an example of Balanced Polymorphism?

Individuals who are heterozygous for the sickle cell allele (carrying one copy of the sickle cell gene and one copy of the normal gene) have a selective advantage against malaria, while individuals homozygous for the sickle cell allele suffer from the severe disease, creating a balance in the population where both alleles persist due to this heterozygote advantage.

Genotype vs Phenotype

Genotype —> specific genetic sequence/allele combination

Phenotype —> specific morphological/physical attribute

Speciation

The evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species

Why is variation important to natural selection?

It provides the raw material for the process to operate; without different traits within a population, natural selection cannot choose which individuals are better adapted to their environment and more likely to survive and reproduce, thus driving evolutionary change.

Basic Primate Tendencies

1. Grasping hands + feet

2. Shift from smell to sight based info

3. Shift from nose to hand based information

4. Higher brain capacity

5. Higher parental investment in offspring

6. Social complexity

What do human non-human primate homologies indicate?

• Homologies → looking for traits that you have that are the result of shared common ancestry

• Analogies → shared selective pressures, but NOT indicative of same common ancestry, evidence of CONVERGENT evolution

What do analogies indicate? (Convergent Evolution)

shared selective pressures, but NOT indicative of same common ancestry

Homology

The similarity of a structure or function of parts of different organisms based on their descent from a common evolutionary ancestor.

Convergent Evolution/Analogies

A similarity in function between two structures from different organisms, superficial resemblance because they have different origins/common ancestors. ONLY SIMILAR FUNCTION, NOT ORIGIN. (Think: winds of fly, moth, and bird).

Anthropoid

All monkeys, apes, and people.

What are the common behavioral patterns among primates?

1. Mother-infant bond

2. Affiliation + Grooming

3. Dominance Hierarchies

4. Dispersal Patterns

5. Cooperation + Conflict

Mother-Infant Bond

• Long infant dependency period

• learn crucial info abt other group members —> learned caregiving

• clear interest in investing time in infant

Affiliation + Grooming

• groom to destress + clean

• grooming happens b/w those who want to associate w one another

Dominance Hierarchies

• ranking individual primary access compared to others for access to resources

• sexual dimorphism —> males > females (physique), often dominant

• gets complicated

Dispersal Patterns

Members leave the group, create relations with non-kin, susceptible to predation + lack of food.

Cooperation + Conflict

• maintain social relations via acts of cooperation

• dominance relations keep social order, resource fighting is rare

• reconciliation : hugs, sharing, other physical contact (non-confrontational)

Strepsirrhini Primates

• lemurs + lorises

• small body size

• small brain:body ratio

• keen smell

• wet nose to increase smell ability

• arboreal + nocturnal

Haplorrhinni Primates

• tarsiiformes

  • good jumpers

  • large eyes

  • nocturnal

• simiiformes

  • Monkeys of the Americas

  • Old World Monkeys

  • Apes + ppl

Monkeys of the Americas

• arboreal

• small

• prehensile tail!

  • has pad @ end = “fingerprint”

Old World Monkeys

• terrestrial + arboreal

• daytime activity

• short, stubby tails

Apes

• humans share the most recent common ancestor w them!

• no tails

• larger bodies + brains

• full arm rotation + more hand movements

  • can swing limb to limb! (brachiation)

Kanzi the Bonobo

He was able to process and understand human language, and somewhat communicate back.

Absolute Dating vs Relative Dating

Absolute Dating —> techniques to get exact dates

Relative Dating —> “this came before that”

Hominin

The group consisting of modern humans, extinct human species, and all our immediate ancestors. First appears approx. 6 - 7 million years ago.

What is the approximate date for the appearance of Ardipithecus?

7 mya

What is approximate date for the appearance of the genus Homo?

About 2.4 million years ago. Can say 2 mya.

Defining features of the hominin line —> what are unique to all hominins?

• Bipedalism

  • modifications in lower body, upper arms, + backbone

  • spine curvature

  • forward-placed foramen magnum = supports bipedalism

  • needs strong PELVIC support

• smaller canines

• reduced canine/premolar-3 shearing complex

• increased brain:body ratio

  • brains larger

• increased tool use

How are brain size, pelvic shape, and bipedalism related when it comes to childbirth?

• Larger skulls due to larger brain size needed larger birth canals. BUT WE DIDN’T HAVE THAT!

• Strong pelvic support needed for bipedalism

Which hominins lived only in Africa?

Ardipithecus + all others of Homo genus before Homo Erectus

Which was the first hominin to migrate out of Africa, and what continents did it inhabit?

Homo erectus.

Inhabited:

• Africa

• Europe

• India

• Indonesia

• China

Which hominin used fire regularly? Why is that significant?

Homo erectus. Marked crucial step in human evolution —> allowed cooking food, staying warm in cold, warding of predators, + potential development of complex social structures.

Oldowan Tool Set

Homo Habilis + all earlier hominins. Only on African continent.

Acheulian Tool Set

Homo Erectus.

Neanderthal Debate

• How is the debate linked to the social context of those who have taken it up?

  • Shows “wrong perspective”

• What relationship might the debate have to the idea of racial classification?

  • Just wants you to think ethnographically abt scientists → THEY ARE ALSO PART OF THEIR SOCIAL CONTEXTS, can see in interpretation of neanderthal fossil record

  • Times really effect the most popular perspective

What groups of humans were referred to as the “original affluent society”?

Hunter-gatherers.

• lives not harsh, hours each day in leisure, socializing, or sleeping

• needed nor desired material goods

• did not view natural environments as scarce or harsh, but as affluent + always providing for their needs

Cultural Features Common For Foragers

• egalitarianism (all ppl = and deserve = rights + opportunities)

• lower pop density

• lack of territoriality

• min of food storage

• flux in band composition

Neolithic

Cultural period in a region which first signs of food production are present. FIRST INSTANCE: Middle East, ~ 10,000 ya

Broad Spectrum Revolution

• wider range of plant + animal life was hunted, gathered, collected, + fished

• focus = animals w quick, prolific reproduction

• formed groundwork for emergence of food production + domestication

Emergence of Food Production in Middle East —> role of natufian culture?

Natufian culture in the Hilly Flanks set the stage for the development of sedentary life by exploiting local resources, creating semi-permanent dwellings, and developing social and technological practices that encouraged people to settle in one area. Climate change caused the resources to shrink, thus leading to Natufians to experiment with cultivation and semi-sedentary food production for stability.

Why could north south vs east west axis matter?

North-South —> diffusion complex b/c drastic seasonal variation + day lengths

East-West —> easier diffusion of tech, not as much variation, Old World geography eased this

What pressures may have led to plant + animal domestication in Middle East?

• Largely unknown, but seem to be response to CRISIS to SURVIVE

• Population pressure, climate change, social changes/cultural changes

Transhumance

• fairly simple transforming of nomadic Hunter-Gather lifestyle

• moving herds to diff fields w changing seasons —> only part of group migrates

  • leads to societies practicing pastoralism

Pastoralism

• raising domesticated animals for grazing on large, open grasslands

• = larger pops + increased complexity in social patterns

• relatively few in # exist worldwide, almost all ppl in world settled + living from agriculture

Sedentism

Living in groups permanently in one place.

Consequences of food production + sedentism

• combo of pop growth + sedentism = significant food prod changes

• once settled = pop growth, increase in intense food production

• increased labor for food prod = periodic shortages off food = true agriculture

Relationship b/w food production + growth of society inequality + concept of property?

• Really starts to emerge in era of agriculture → labor, slavery, class, etc 

• Consequences of Agriculture slides!! Idea that the seeds of the idea of property are part of the seeds of developing the idea of agriculture ⇒ idea that things can be stolen, can’t be stolen when you’re foraging

• What does it mean to own something

What does Michael Pollan tell us about industrial agriculture and biodiversity?

Omnivore’s Dilemma!

• costs of industrial agriculture —> North American dependence on corn, all-corn diet

• plants dominated by single species in bio foundation —> Zea mays/corn

• obscured using LANGUAGE

What is the case of Percy Schmeiser about? What is the outcome of the case that we watched? How is it related to the concept of property?

• Monsanto took some of his crop + claimed he illegally got their GMO canola w/o a patent

• court sided w Monsanto!

• demonstrates transformation of food into property!!

Redistribution principle of exchange

• Redistribution → politically organized, political center gathers + distributes 

• Don’t worry too much abt redistribution

Market Exchange

• cultural form

• buying + selling w money

• emphasis on maxing profit

• value determined by S + D

Non-Market Exchange

• exchange = everyday life

• complex + historical exchange systems

Three Types of Reciprocity

Generalized, Balanced, Negative

Generalized Reciprocity

• giving w no specific expectation of exchange

• no expectation of precise time of return

• closest family + kin members

Balanced Reciprocity (Kula!)

• exchanges b/w ppl more distantly related compared to members of same band/household

• balanced social distance + expected time of return

Negative Reciprocity (Buritila’ulo!)

• dealing w ppl outside or on fringes of social systems, carefully calculated reciprocity

• farthest social distance + expected time of return

Kula = What is it?

• Mali —> white armshells, travel counterclockwise in exchange for Bagi things

• Bagi —> red shell necklaces, travel clockwise in exhange for Mali things

Kula Functions

• rite of passage for young men = prestige in society

• prestige + political power thru gift giving

• creation + maintenance of trade communities

• religious engagements w sorcery, etc

• creative response to capitalist encroachment

• acts as social regulation —> if you don’t follow the rules (complex!), kicked out!

Buritila’ulo Yam Exchange

• reciprocal EXACT exchange = conflict resolution

• need to give back exact amount, otherwise WAR

Potlatching

• Pacific NW coast of NA

• sedentary foragers

• excess gift-giving in times of abundance

  • threatening to colonizers, tried to make it illegal but made ppl do it more

• assertion of dominance via exchange for political leaders + those in power = look @ me + how much I have

What was Paabo’s Nobel Prize for?

Sequencing genomes of extinct hominins (neanderthals and denisovans)