APES Unit 4: Earth Systems and Resources

core

The central part of the earth below the mantle, made of iron and nickel, HOT

mantle

The layer of hot, solid material between Earth's crust and core, thickest layer of Earth's interior, contains magma

magma

A molten mixture of rock-forming substances, gases, and water from the mantle

asthenosphere

The upper layer of the earth's mantle, below the lithosphere, in which there is relatively low resistance to plastic flow and convection is thought to occur; semi-molten, flexible outer layer of mantle

lithosphere

The rigid outer part of the earth, consisting of the crust and upper mantle; thin, brittle layer of rock floating on top of mantle (broken up into tectonic plates)

crust

The thin and solid outermost layer of the Earth above the mantle

tectonic plate

Sections of the Earth's crust that move due to convection currents.

divergent plate boundary

Boundary between tectonic plates in which the two plates move away from each other, and new crust is created between them; rising magma plume from mantle forces plates apart; forms consist of mid-oceanic ridges, volcanoes, seafloor spreading, and rift-valleys; Example - Mid-Atlantic Ridge

convergent plate boundary

A tectonic plate boundary where two plates collide, come together, or crash into each other; leads to subduction or buckling; forms consist of mountains, island arcs, and volcanoes; Example - India and Northern Ring of Fire

transform fault boundary

a boundary in which two plates slide past each other without creating or destroying lithosphere; in other words, earthquakes; forms consist of faults (fractures in rock); Example - West Coast of California

subduction

The process by which oceanic crust sinks beneath a deep-ocean trench and back into the mantle at a convergent plate boundary.

ring of fire

pattern of volcanes and earthquake zones all around the Pacific plate

transform faults

likely location of earthquakes

hotspots

areas of especially hot magma rising up to lithosphere; mid-ocean islands (Iceland, Hawaii); plate action without movement

mid-atlantic ridge

divergent boundary in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean

soil

A mixture of mineral particles and organic material that covers the land, and in which terrestrial plants grow; includes sand, silt, and clay; humus; nutrients include ammonium, phosphates, and nitrates; contains water, air, and living organisms

humus

Rich, dark organic material formed by decay of vegetable matter, essential to soil's fertility

weathering vs. erosion

Weathering = wind, rain, acids breaking rocks into smaller pieces.

Erosion = those smaller pieces being carried away by wind & rain

soil formation from below

Weathering of parent material produces smaller, and smaller fragments that make up geological/inorganic part of soil; Examples include sand, silt, clay, minerals

soil formation from above

Breakdown of organic matter adds humus to soil; Erosion deposits soil particles from other areas, adding to soil

soil horizon

The layer of soil that differs in color and texture from the layers above or below it.

O-Horizon

The organic horizon at the surface of many soils, composed of organic detritus in various stages of decomposition

A-Horizon (topsoil)

Frequently the top layer of soil, a zone of organic material and minerals that have been mixed together; layer of humus and minerals from parent material; most biological activity

E-Horizon

The zone of leaching that forms under the O horizon or, less often, the A horizon; not in every type of soil

B-Horizon (subsoil)

Composed primarily of mineral material with very little organic matter; lighter layer below topsoil

C-Horizon (weathered rock)

least weathered soil that is closest to the parent material, sometimes called bedrock

soil degration

Damage to soil; loss of topsoil dries out soil, removing nutrients; compaction reduces ability to hold moisture; nutrient depletion reduces the ability to grow future crops

soil particles

Almost all soils are mixtures of varying amounts of three soil particles: sand, silt, clay

soil texture

refers to the size of individual soil particles and is determined by the proportions of particle sizes in the soil (=100%)

porosity

The percentage of the total volume of a rock or sediment that consists of open spaces; bigger particles = space between them = more easily filled or infiltrated

permeability

The ability of a rock or sediment to let fluids pass through its open spaces, or pores; more ______ = less water holding capacity

ideal soil

loam soil; balance of porosity and drainage without water holding capacity

factors that increase soil nutrients

Organic matter (releases nutrients); Humus (holds and releases nutrients); Decomposer activity (recycles nut.); Clay (neg. charge binds pos. nutrients); Bases (Calcium carbonate - limestone)

factors that decrease soil nutrients

acids, excessive rain, excessive farming, topsoil erosion

factors that increase water holding capacity

Aerated soil (biological activity); Compost/humus/organic matter; Clay content; Root structure, especially natives

factors that decrease water holding capacity

compacted soil, topsoil erosion, sand, root loss

Earth's Atmosphere gases

78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.93% Argon, 0.04% water vapor, 0.04% carbon dioxide

exosphere

The outer layer of the thermosphere, extending outward into space

thermosphere

The uppermost layer of the atmosphere, in which temperature increases as altitude increases; Northern Lights occur here; absorbs harmful x-rays and UV radiation; hottest place on earth

mesosphere

The layer of Earth's atmosphere immediately above the stratosphere; density decreases, leaving fewerer molecules to absorb sun; where meterors burn up; temperature decreases with altitude; coldest place on Earth

stratosphere

2nd layer of atmosphere; extends from 10 to 30 miles up; location of ozone layer; absorbs 95% of Ultraviolet radiation; temperature increases with altitude increase; less dense due to less pressure from layers above; thickests O3 layer

ozone layer

a layer in the stratosphere (at approximately 20 miles) that contains a concentration of ozone sufficient to block most ultraviolet radiation from the sun

trophosphere

layer of Earth's atmosphere closest to Earth's surface (where weather takes place and where most pollution occurs); most of atmosphere gas particles are found here; temperature decreases with altitude

atmospheric circulation

energy from sunlight, density properties of air, rotation of Earth (Coriolis Effect)

air properties

Warm air rises and holds more moisture than cold; Rising air expands & cools; Cool air can't hold as much H2O vapor (condenses → rain); After cooling & expanding, air sinks

coriolis effect

Causes moving air and water to turn left in the southern hemisphere and turn right in the northern hemisphere due to Earth's hemisphere.

Hadley Cell

a large-scale atmospheric convection cell in which air rises at the equator and sinks at medium latitudes, typically about 30° north or south.

Global Wind Patterns

air movements that are caused by pressure belts convection cells and earth's rotation. Warm air rises from the equator to the poles then cools and sinks back to the equator

Eastern Trade Winds

wind that blows from east to west from 0 degrees (equator) to 30 degrees (tropic of cancer and tropic of capricorn)

Westerlies

prevailing winds that blow from west to east between 30 degrees and 60 degrees latitude in both hemispheres

Polar Easterlies

Prevailing winds that blow from east to west between 60degrees-90degrees latitude in both hemisphere.

watershed

an area or ridge of land that separates waters flowing to different rivers, basins, or seas; determined by slope (hill/mtn); more vegetation = high infiltration and groundwater recharge; greater slope = faster velocity of runoff and more soil erosion

human impacts on watersheds

Clear Cutting (cutting down forests so soil erosion is quicker); Urbanization (water runs faster on roads, leading to flooding); Human Farms (water runs through, polluted with chemicals); Eutrophication- too much nutrients

insolation

incoming solar radiation reaching an area; measured in Walts/m2

solar intensity and latitude

Solar intensity of insolation (W/m2) depends on: Angle (how directly rays strike earth's surface), the amount of atmosphere sun's rays pass through, Equator = higher insolation than higher latitudes

tropic of cancer

a line of latitude about 23 degrees North of the equator

tropic of capricorn

a line of latitude about 23 degrees South of the equator

June and December Solstices

N or S hemisphere is maximally tilted toward sun (summer/winter)

March and September Equinox

equator faces sun directly; neither pole tilts toward sun; all regions on earth experience 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness

urban heat island

In large cities, expanses of paved surfaces, particularly asphalt, absorbs heat during day and radiates heat at night. Sparse vegetatation and paved surfaces increase rain runoff, furthering reducing cooling effects. Temperatures in the cities are usually 3-5 degrees hotter than surrounding country side.

albedo

Ability of a surface to reflect light; high _____ = reflect more light, absorb less light (EX: ice/snow); low _____ = reflect less light, absorb more light (EX: water); impacts surface temperature

rain shadow

a region with dry conditions found on the leeward side of a mountain range as a result of humid winds from the ocean causing precipitation on the windward side

windward side

side of the mountain where rain and other weather are expected; wind comes from the oceans; warm, moist air rises on the mountains and eventually cools and condenses into rain clouds

leeward side

side of mountain that gets very little precipitation and can be desert like; side opposite of oceans/wind direction; air has already "dropped off" its water and is now dry; as it sinks down the mountains, it warms

gyres

A large-scale pattern of water circulation that moves clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere due to global wind patterns

upwelling zones

areas of ocean where winds blow warm surface water away from a land mass, drawing up colder, deeper water to replace it; cold water holds more oxygen (phytoplankton thrive in high oxygen)

El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

pattern of shifting in atmospheric pressure and ocean currents in the Pacific Ocean between South America and Australia/Southeast Asia; occurs every 3-5 years

thermohaline circulation

Movement of ocean water caused by density difference brought about by variations in temperature and salinity. As ocean water freezes at the poles it concentrates salt, and the colder, denser water sinks.

Normal Trade Winds

blow East to West; low pressure, warm and moist air, and high percipitation in Aus/SE Asia; high pressure, upwelling, cold and dry air, and good year for fisheries in South America

El Nino Trade Winds

trade winds weaken and reverse (west to east); high pressure and cool/dry conditions in Aus/SE Asia; low pressure, upwelling stops, warm/moist air, and bad year for fisheries in South America

La Nina Trade Winds

stronger than normal trade winds (east to west); low pressure, heavy percipitation, and warm/moist air in Aus/SE Asia; high pressure, increased upwelling, cool/dry conditions, and great year for fisheries in South America