Meiji Restoration

Zaibatsu

A group of industrial and financial companies in Japan that controlled a significant part of the economy until World War II, responsible for westernization. e.g mistubishi

• Built railways, factories, shipyards + transport

• Politically well connected

• Interested in providing heavy machinery + infrastructure that was needed to expand

• Interests centred around militarism + imperialism

• Provided munitions + capital for navy and army

• Supported territorial encroachment into Korea, Russia, Manchuria & China (1895-05)

Japanese Modernisation

focusing on industrialisation, education reform, military restructuring, and societal changes.

Emperor Meiji and Japanese Modernisation

Key role: 

• Issued the Charter oath

• outlined the principles of the new government and signalled a commitment to reform and modernisation

• Symbol of Unity and National Identity:

• unifying symbol for the reformers who sought to modernise Japan

• symbol of national unity helped to rally support for the restoration movement

• foster a sense of national identity among the Japanese people.

• Provided crucial endorsement and support for the reform measures proposed by his advisors and government officials

• Centralisation of Power

• the government sought to consolidate authority and strengthen the Emperor's role as the symbolic and ceremonial head of state

Legacy:

• adopted a constitution and a parliamentary system 

• instituted universal education

• built railroads and installed telegraph lines

• established strong army and navy forces

Meiji Constitution Basis

• define Japan as a capable, modern nation deserving of Western respect while preserving their own power.

• Ito Hirobumi tasked with this (1889)

• emphasising the state's importance over individual liberties

• deriving legal power from the emperor's divine authority (ultimate source of power)

• linking 'Eternal Ages,' the constitution establish a connection with Japan's historical roots, ensuring continuity and reinforcing the emperor's authority.

• to steer the country towards rapid development and catch up with the advanced Western nations

• embracing progressive ideas from the West while upholding the Japanese culture

•  Provided for 3 separate bodies to work together:

  • Emperor given supreme/executive power (reign was absolute)

  • Parliament (Imperial Diet): 

  1. House of peers/nobles - members of the royal family or nominated by the Emperor

  2. Lower house: 300 members elected with restricted voting / franchise system

Charter Oath

A proclamation by Emperor Meiji in 1868 outlining principles for Japan's transition to a modern nation.

Societal Reforms in Meiji Era

• rapid abolition of feudal system - daimyo requested to give up their domains by july 1869; domains abolished and transformed into prefectures by 1871

• feudal lords and samurai offered a yearly stipend (a sum of money paid at regular times), then one-time payment in government bonds (lending the government money to get paid back interest periodically)

• samurai lost class privileges - top knots, then swords

• armies of each domain disbanded in favour of national army

• Diversity of intellectual; and political thought

• peasants from countryside to factories

Governmental Reforms in Meiji Era

• diet (japan’s bicameral legislature) 1889

• Meiji (imperial) constitution 1890 till the end of ww1

Economic Reforms in Meiji Era

• abolition of feudalism

• currency (yen) adopted 1872

• encouragement of foreign trade

• expansion and encouragement of industrialisation

• growth of factories

• 1873 land reform

  • landowners paid a tax determined on the assessed value of the land, rather than the yield of their crops

    • Ensured gov. had regular annual tax flow that couldn’t be altered by agrarian yields

• zaibatsu built and expanded

• Introduction of effective taxation & currency system allowed Japan to become self sufficient + not reliant on western capital or trade

• Large scale industrialisation + modernisation were mostly funded by land tax + backed by a stable + consistent unit of currency.

Military Reforms in Meiji Era

• Before Meiji era: Armies were run by local daimyo and thus not submissive to a central government

• Meiji era: modern army and navy established which were loyal to the Japanese government (indoctrination) 

• Used Prussia (Germany) as a primary model

• Firm belief that if Japan was to be taken seriously by Western powers, and was to avoid China’s fate, Japan would have to compete militarily

• Conscription (1873) — all men had to serve for 3 years after turning 21

Japanese Militarism and Imperialism

Factors which influenced/changed (further discussed in other palm cards):

• political

• Japanese ideology

  • wanting to be like western nations

• repurposing samurais

• Lack of raw materials

Fukoku kyohei – ‘Rich country; strong military’

Charter oath article 1

expressed the commitment to establish deliberative assemblies and promote public discussion, a democratic government. Became more inclusive of all classes

Charter oath article 2

How Japan will become democratic — making it clear that anyone can serve in government, despite social status and everyone can vote

Charter oath article 3

abolition of the rigid feudal class system

This move towards equality before the law, create a more egalitarian/feudalistic society.

Charter oath article 4

• importance of knowledge and education in advancing national progress.

• aimed to modernise Japan's educational system

• foster innovation and technological advancement

• Sign of westernisation

Charter oath article 5

shows Universal good recognising that knowledge throughout  Japan will be spread

reflected a departure from Japan's previous policy of isolationism and marked a new era of engagement with the global community.

Westernisation sign.

EDUCATION

• state education system.

• strongly enforced ideas such as severe nationalism and the invincibility of Japan’s armies

• directly cultivated a society that highly values and promotes military strength, discipline, and readiness.

• Students were to adopt Western scientific + technical knowledge but disregard liberalism + western ideologies

• 1872 Education Act:

  • Established compulsory nationally funded primary education

  • Developed each area into districts + schools for technical + middle years

Japanese Ideology- Militarism and Imperialism

Japan admired powerful countries that expanded their control over others but also criticised their arrogance. (saw powerful nations as models of strength, but criticised them for being ‘bullies’ (domineering))

Japan's was sad for the west looking down at them but they also looked down at other asian countries as they were the only ones not colonised by the west

In order for Japan to be equal to other western powers it had to acquire colonies of it’s own, this can be seen with the battle of Lushunkou .

Giving the Samurai purpose- Militarism and Imperialism

the strong need for the large military class that had been robbed of their political capital and social standing to be preoccupied serving the state so they did not rebel

Military Independence- Militarism and Imperialism

The Army and Navy’s independence from parliamentary control allowed them to advocate for militaristic solutions to national problems, these solutions only required the approval of the Emperor

Lack of raw materials Militarism and Imperialism

Japanese archipelago’s geography means that it has minimal amounts of valuable raw materials such as oil, coal, iron, rubber.

Japan’s mountainous interior (due to lying on a fault line) means that Japan was struggling to feed its population. This gave them direct motivation to conquer foreign territories as a way of securing these resources in the event of a total war.

Transformation of Japan (significance of meiji restoration)

The Meiji Restoration marked the overthrow of the feudal government and the establishment of a modern, centralised state under Emperor Meiji. It initiated rapid industrialisation, modernisation, and Westernisation of Japan's political, social, economic, and military systems. This allowed Japan into becoming the first world country it is today.

Asian Perspective (significance of meiji restoration)

influencing Asian countries' perceptions of modernisation and Westernisation such as China.

Japan's successful transformation challenged the notion of Western superiority

inspired other Asian nations to pursue modernisation to resist Western imperialism.

Reaction of the West: (significance of meiji restoration)

• initially viewed Japan's rapid modernisation with surprise and admiration

• Japan's ability to transform itself into a global power within a short span astonished Western nations. leading to a re-evaluation of Japan's position in the international community

• For example, Japan being included during the negotiations at the Versailles Peace Conference in 1919, being considered one of the “big five”

Shift in Power Dynamics: (significance of meiji restoration)

• reshaped power dynamics in Asia, challenging the dominance of Western colonial powers

• positioning Japan as a significant player on the world stage

• Japan's emergence as a modernised nation-state disrupted the traditional balance of power in Asia

bumei kaika

‘civilisation and enlightenment’

The impact/consequences of modernisation/industrialisation on Meiji Japan

Sonno joi

‘Revere the Emperor, expel the barbarians‘

Shogunate → increasingly difficult position

• Foreign powers pressing for unequal treaties and trade 

Shogun embarked on a program to strengthen Japan’s military defence

• Dutch ships and guns were imported, daimyo and samurai were ordered to reinforce coastal defences  

• Advice of Pres. Fillmore’s demands sent to all high-ranking scholars, officials and clans

Debate raged internally on what position Japan should adopt

• Some daimyo → recognised the extreme threat the US posed to sovereignty + stability

• Advocated for the Shogun to accede (agree) to the demands

• Officials surrounding shogun → enraged by demands of the “barbarian’s” 

• Wanted to maintain seclusion

Decline of feudalism on Damiyo

Daimyo of Hizen, Tosa, Satsuma, Choshu clans opposed Tokugawa Shogun.

• Resented the bakufu government, sankin kotai system (system which required damiyo to split time between capital of their domain and the shogun’s capital of Edo)

• Edo court residence made maintaining domains & paying samurai stipends difficult

Decline of Feudalism on Peasants

heavily taxed to increase resources of the daimyo.

• Samurai were discontent with restricted stipends because they felt their status and contributions were not adequately recognized or rewarded.

• Stipends shifted from rice to money in the latter part of the Edo period

Decline of Feudalism on Samurai

Discontent with the Samurai and their impoverished state → led them to borrow from the despised chonin (merchants)

• Japan becoming increasingly commercialised → Chonin wealth exceeded daimyo and samurai.

• However, Chonin lacked social acceptance & status

19th century revolts

Peasant revolts over corruption, food shortage, high rice prices.

• Main grievance: Heavy taxation on rice yields, up to 40-50%.

• Another issue: Daimyo increased taxation, forcing peasants to borrow from chonin.

Many peasants lost land due to high taxes and borrowing.

Prior to arrival of Commodore Perry & the Black ships

• Closed to industrial revolution of the West

Western Powers → attempted to open trade and diplomatic relations since 1600s, but forcibly excluded

1852-53: Americans led naval expedition into Edo Bay

• 8 black ships under command of Commodore Perry

• Under pretence of rescuing American sailors

• Demanded the opening of Japanese ports to supply coal for American ships

Normalisation of foreign relationships with the west

Commodore Perry and his demands

Perry had been sanctioned to use gunboat diplomacy (pursuit of foreign policy objectives with the aid of conspicuous displays of naval power) or force to ensure his imperative was delivered. 

• Caused uproar in Edo

• Threat of naval action → provocative + intimidating

Shogun initially refused to respond → under mounting pressure, appointed 2 commissioners to negotiate

Perry maintained diplomatic + military pressure by coming ashore with 300 men to deliver an ultimatum (letter) from US Pres. Fillmore

Commissioners negotiated for one more year to think

President Fillmore’s letter

1853

Letter: US President Millard Fillmore to the Emperor of Japan (1852–1853) 

Three main requests to Emperor

1. Opening Japan's ports to American ships for trade

2. Providing US ships with ports to resupply with coal and other provisions (in return for payment) 

3. The protection of US citizens that become shipwrecked in Japan.

Treaty of Kanagawa

end of japanese isolationism

12th February 1854 → Commodore Perry sailed back into Edo Bay

• Shogun faced with mounting pressure to grant concessions in case Americans attacked

→ Agreement was reached , informally known as the Perry Treaty

• Negotiated at Kanagawa; and provided for:

1. The protection of American sailors

2. The opening of ports of Shimoda, Izu Peninsula and Hakodate to supply + trade with American ships

3. American representation to Japanese officials at Shimoda → in case of disputes

4. Most favoured nation clause → low tariffs on imported goods, extraterritoriality (being exempted from local law)

Treaty of Kanagawa on other countries

ended the Seclusion Edicts & opened up ports + resources to other western nations

• Britain, France, Holland, Russia → sued for treaty provisions (similarly unequal to the US)

• October 1854: UK opened up Nagasaki + Hakodate to provide supplies

• February 1855: Russia was granted access to Shimoda, Hakodate and Nagasaki + given extraterritorial rights

• 1855: Netherlands gained similar access

Decline of Shogun

The nationalist anti-foreign sentiment, the Sonno Joi movement, "Revere the Emperor and expel the barbarians," gained momentum.

• Attacks on foreigners escalated, including murders of Harris's secretary and a British man, leading to British naval retaliation.

Emperor's unprecedented move to summon the Shogun to Kyoto signalled a power shift.

• Shogun's inability to expel foreigners alone led to the Choshu clan taking action.

• Choshu clan fired on foreigners, prompting joint naval retaliation by Western powers.

• Defeats of powerful Western-supporting clans signalled decline of the bakufu government.

Shogun's refusal to negotiate with West highlighted his decline, deferring to the Emperor's authority.

Satsuma samurai contained Choshu forces to protect the Emperor, diminishing the influence of pro-Shogun factions.

Goal of Meiji Reformers:

Primary Goal: modernise Japan in order to end the unfair treaties imposed on it by the west

• Two study missions were sent to the West:

1. Iwakura Mission 1872

2. Hirobumi Mission on 1882

• Both reported on the West’s power seemed to lie in it’s advanced, economy + military

• Meiji reformers coined the phrase ‘rich country, strong army’ (fukoko kyo nei) as an aim

• Social, cultural and economic reforms needed to achieve this

Problems faced by Meiji Reformers (social)

→ divided by a caste system

→ Fixed, hereditary system - no incentive to improve lives or innovate

→ Samurai stipends - 50% of government expenditure (1871)

→ No public school system (1868)

→ No women rights

Problems faced by Meiji Reformers (Economic)

→ 1868: had an advanced feudal economy but was based on agriculture; Silk was main export

→ No national tax system (1868); lack of gov. funds for development and industrialisation

→ Industry faced foreign competition on unequal terms, unable to protect own industries

→ Lacked raw materials for industrialisation

Problems faced by Meiji Reformers (Cultural)

→ Confucian belief discouraged change to social system + Westernisation

→ Society hostile to westernisation + development

→ Samurai culture (bushido) discouraged military from adapting to modern warfare

→ National identity was weak - not committed to emperor as political symbol

Political changes — consequences of modernisation for Japan

Representative government was initially not viable under early Meiji due to focus on modernisation.

• 1881: Calls for representation emerged, driven by dissatisfaction and need to curb monopolies that rapid infrastructure and building developments had led to 

  Government agreed to establish a new national assembly in 1890 to address these concerns:

• Would enable representation to be heard from different factions

• Political parties formed: Jiyuto (Liberal Party) led by Itagaki, Rikken Kaishinto (Progressive Party) led by Okuma, and Rikken Teiseito (Constitutional Imperial Rule)  to balance extremes.

Meiji Constitution→ quasi-oligarchic system

• Real power was concentrated in the hands of the genro or Privy Council

• Genro: given powerful positions within government + military; followers appointed to House of Peers

• House of representatives: elected from limited franchise

• Cabinet: appointed by Emperor

Early struggles in House of Representatives didn't affect the modernisation agenda due to budget cooperation.

• Over time, Genro's influence waned; focused on advising Privy Council.

Main reasons for introduction of Constitution → reform of judicial system

•  System under Tokugawa Shogunate: unjust + arbitrary 

System of justice had been rejected by Western powers + had forced Japan into extraterritoriality agreements.

Were unwilling to revise treaties until the penal code(system of punishments) mirrored their own commitment to rule + justice

Wakon-yosai

Japanese spirit, western ideas’