Key Concepts in U.S. Foreign Policy and History

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards focusing on significant terms and concepts related to U.S. foreign policy and historical events.

Isolationism

A foreign policy approach where a nation avoids involvement in international conflicts and alliances.

Fall of France

The rapid defeat of France by Nazi Germany in 1940, leading to German occupation and the Vichy government.

Regional Hegemony

A situation where a state dominates its geographical region in terms of military, economic, and political influence.

Lend-Lease Act

A 1941 law allowing the U.S. to provide military aid to Allied nations without immediate repayment.

Japanese Oil Embargo

A U.S.-led embargo in 1941 that cut off oil exports to Japan in response to its aggression in Asia.

War Production Board

A U.S. government agency that coordinated industrial production during WWII to support the war effort.

FDR as Commander-in-Chief

Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) developed a gradual yet decisive strategy to guide the U.S. from isolationism to full-scale war participation while maintaining public and political support. His approach can be broken down into five key strategies:

Overwhelming Force

A military strategy that involves using superior firepower, numbers, and resources to ensure victory.

Unconditional Surrender

A demand that the losing side in a conflict surrenders without any guarantees or negotiated terms.

Post-WWII System and Motives

The international order established after WWII, aimed at preventing future conflicts and promoting economic stability.

UN Charter

The founding document of the United Nations, establishing its principles and structure.

UNSC (United Nations Security Council)

The UN body responsible for maintaining international peace and security.

Bretton Woods

A 1944 conference that established the post-war global economic system, including the IMF and World Bank.

GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade)

A post-WWII agreement aimed at reducing trade barriers and promoting global commerce.

IMF (International Monetary Fund)

An organization that provides financial assistance and policy advice to countries in economic distress.

UDHR (Universal Declaration of Human Rights)

A 1948 UN document outlining fundamental human rights that should be protected worldwide.

Soviet Ideology

The Marxist-Leninist principles that guided the USSR, emphasizing communism and state control of the economy.

George Kennan

A U.S. diplomat who developed the containment policy to counter Soviet expansion.

Containment

A U.S. foreign policy aimed at preventing the spread of communism.

Truman Doctrine

A U.S. policy pledging support to nations threatened by communism.

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

A military alliance formed in 1949 to counter Soviet influence in Europe.

NSC-68

A 1950 U.S. policy document calling for a massive military buildup to counter the Soviet threat.

Covert Action

Secret government activities to influence events in foreign nations.

Escalation Management

The process of controlling the intensity of a conflict to avoid unintended war.

Bay of Pigs

A failed 1961 CIA-backed invasion of Cuba to overthrow Fidel Castro.

Domino Theory

The belief that if one country falls to communism, neighboring countries will follow.

Weinberger and Powell Doctrines

Guidelines for U.S. military intervention. The Weinberger and Powell Doctrines outline when and how the U.S. should engage in military action. The Weinberger Doctrine emphasizes the need for clear objectives and public support, while the Powell Doctrine advocates for overwhelming force and a clear exit strategy.

Humanitarian Intervention & R2P (Responsibility to Protect)

Military intervention justified by the need to prevent mass atrocities.

Terrorism & Counterterrorism

Strategic Logic: Terrorists use violence to provoke reactions and gain political influence.

Drone Warfare: Used for targeted strikes against terrorist leaders (e.g., Osama bin Laden).

Vietnam War & Related Concepts

Gulf of Tonkin Incident: Led to U.S. escalation in Vietnam after alleged attacks on U.S. ships.

Air Campaigns: U.S. bombed North Vietnam (Operation Rolling Thunder) to weaken enemy forces.

Tet Offensive: A major North Vietnamese attack in 1968 that weakened U.S. public support for the war.

Quagmire: The idea that the U.S. was stuck in an unwinnable war in Vietnam.

Isolationism (Example)

The U.S. refused to join the League of Nations and passed Neutrality Acts in the 1930s to avoid being drawn into European wars.

Fall of France (Example)

The Fall of France shocked the U.S. and Britain, leading to increased American support for the Allies through policies like Lend-Lease.

Regional Hegemony (Example)

The U.S. is the hegemon of the Western Hemisphere, enforcing influence through policies like the Monroe Doctrine.

Lend-Lease Act (Example)

The U.S. supplied weapons, aircraft, and ships to the UK and USSR, helping sustain their war efforts against Germany.

Japanese Oil Embargo (Example)

This pushed Japan toward war with the U.S., leading to the attack on Pearl Harbor.

War Production Board (Example)

It facilitated mass production of tanks, planes, and munitions, significantly boosting U.S. wartime output.

FDR as Commander-in-Chief (Example)

FDR made key strategic decisions, such as prioritizing Germany's defeat over Japan (Europe First strategy).

Overwhelming Force (Example)

The U.S. applied overwhelming force in the 1991 Gulf War, quickly defeating Saddam Hussein’s forces.

Unconditional Surrender (Example)

The Allies demanded unconditional surrender from Nazi Germany and Japan in WWII, ensuring a complete regime change.

Post-WWII System and Motives (Example)

 Institutions like the United Nations, Bretton Woods system, and NATO were created to manage global security and trade.

UN Charter (Example)

It defines the Security Council’s authority to authorize military interventions and peacekeeping missions.

UNSC (United Nations Security Council) (Example)

 The UNSC authorized military intervention in Korea (1950) and Libya (2011).

Bretton Woods (Example)

It created a fixed exchange rate system and the U.S. dollar as the dominant global currency.

GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) (Example)

GATT evolved into the World Trade Organization (WTO), which enforces trade agreements today.

IMF (International Monetary Fund) (Example)

The IMF helped stabilize Greece’s economy during its 2010 debt crisis.

UDHR (Universal Declaration of Human Rights) (Example)

It influenced international human rights law and treaties like the European Convention on Human Rights.

Soviet Ideology (Example)

Soviet ideology drove the Cold War conflict with the U.S. and justified interventions in Eastern Europe.

George Kennan (Example)

His "Long Telegram" (1946) influenced the Truman Doctrine and U.S. Cold War strategy.

Containment (Example)

The U.S. implemented containment through the Marshall Plan, NATO, and military interventions in Korea and Vietnam.

Truman Doctrine (Example)

It justified U.S. involvement in Cold War conflicts like Korea and Vietnam.

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) (Example)

 NATO intervened in the Balkans in the 1990s to stop ethnic violence.

NSC-68 (Example)

It led to increased U.S. defense spending and intervention in Korea.

Covert Action (Example)

The CIA orchestrated the 1953 coup in Iran to overthrow Prime Minister Mossadegh.

Escalation Management (Example)

 During the Cuban Missile Crisis, the U.S. used naval blockades instead of immediate military strikes.

Bay of Pigs (Example)

The failure embarrassed the U.S. and strengthened Castro’s rule.

Domino Theory (Example)

 It was used to justify U.S. intervention in Vietnam

Weinberger and Powell Doctrines (Example)

Used in the Gulf War but ignored in Iraq (2003).

Humanitarian Intervention & R2P (Responsibility to Protect) (Example)

NATO’s 2011 intervention in Libya to stop Gaddafi’s forces from massacring civilians.

US-Cuban Relations

Definition: The political and economic relationship between the U.S. and Cuba, marked by hostility since the Cuban Revolution (1959).

Example: The U.S. imposed an economic embargo on Cuba in 1962, which remains largely in place today.

Bay of Pigs Advisory Process

Definition: The flawed decision-making process that led to the failed CIA-backed invasion of Cuba in 1961. The advisory process was characterized by groupthink, lack of dissent, and poor planning.

Example: Advisors failed to challenge assumptions about Cuban resistance, leading to a disastrous invasion that strengthened Castro’s position.

Limited Means Force Employment

Definition: The use of military force in a constrained, gradual manner rather than full-scale war.

Example: The U.S. employed limited airstrikes and advisors rather than full military engagement in Vietnam before 1965.

Coercion and Signaling

Definition: The use of threats or limited force to influence another state's behavior. Signaling involves sending messages about intentions through military actions.

Example: The U.S. sent aircraft carriers near Taiwan in 1996 to signal its commitment to defend Taiwan against China.

Miscommunication

Definition: A failure in diplomatic or military messaging that leads to unintended escalation or conflict.

Example: During the Cuban Missile Crisis, unclear communication nearly led to nuclear war when a U.S. Navy ship dropped warning depth charges near a Soviet submarine.

Vietnam War

Definition: A Cold War conflict (1955–1975) where the U.S. fought to prevent the spread of communism in South Vietnam.

Example: The U.S. ultimately withdrew, and North Vietnam reunified the country under communist rule in 1975.

Gulf of Tonkin Incident

Definition: Alleged attacks by North Vietnamese boats on U.S. ships in 1964, used to justify escalation in Vietnam.

Example: The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution gave President Johnson broad war powers without a formal declaration of war.

Air Campaigns Against North Vietnam

Definition: U.S. bombing campaigns aimed at weakening North Vietnam’s war effort.

Example: Operation Rolling Thunder (1965–1968) attempted to pressure North Vietnam into peace talks but largely failed.

Tet Offensive

Definition: A massive surprise attack by the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces in 1968, targeting cities and U.S. bases.

Example: Though a military defeat for North Vietnam, it shattered U.S. public confidence in the war effort.

“Don’t Pull a MacArthur”

Definition: A phrase warning against defying civilian control of the military, referencing General Douglas MacArthur’s dismissal for insubordination during the Korean War.

Example: General MacArthur publicly criticized President Truman’s limited war strategy, leading to his firing in 1951.

Civil-Military Relations During Vietnam War

Definition: The tense relationship between military leaders and civilian policymakers due to differing war strategies.

Example: Military officials wanted more aggressive tactics, but civilian leaders (like Secretary of Defense McNamara) limited force to avoid escalation with China.

Limited Strikes Against Syria (2017)

Definition: A U.S. missile strike ordered by President Trump in response to the Assad regime’s use of chemical weapons.

Example: The Tomahawk missile attack on a Syrian airbase was meant to deter further chemical attacks but did not change the broader conflict.

Hegemonic Moment

Definition: A period when a single country dominates the global order economically, politically, or militarily.

Example: The U.S. experienced a hegemonic moment after the Cold War (1991), leading to unchallenged global influence.

Saddam Hussein

Definition: Former dictator of Iraq (1979–2003) who led Iraq in wars against Iran, Kuwait, and later faced U.S.-led invasion.

Example: He was overthrown in the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq and later executed.

UNSC Authorization

Definition: Approval from the United Nations Security Council for military action or sanctions.

Example: The 1991 Gulf War had UNSC authorization, while the 2003 Iraq War did not, leading to international controversy.

Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA)

Definition: The transformation of warfare through new technology, precision weapons, and information warfare.

Example: The U.S. used stealth aircraft, drones, and precision-guided bombs in the 2003 Iraq War.

Humanitarian Intervention

Definition: The use of military force to prevent human rights abuses, such as genocide or ethnic cleansing.

Example:NATO’s intervention in Kosovo (1999) stopped Serbian forces from committing mass killings

Responsibility to Protect (R2P)

Definition: A UN-backed principle stating that the international community must intervene when a state fails to protect its citizens.

Example: NATO’s Libya intervention (2011) was justified under R2P to prevent massacres by Muammar Gaddafi’s forces.

Libya Intervention (2011)

Definition: A NATO-led military operation to protect civilians during Libya’s civil war, leading to Gaddafi’s overthrow.

Example: The intervention prevented mass killings but left Libya politically unstable.

Terrorism and Its Strategic Logic

Definition: The use of violence by non-state actors to achieve political objectives, often through fear and coercion.

Example: Al-Qaeda’s 9/11 attacks aimed to provoke a U.S. overreaction and destabilize the Middle East

Counter-Terror Approaches

Definition: Strategies used to prevent, deter, and combat terrorism.

Example: The U.S. War on Terror combined military action (Afghanistan, Iraq) with intelligence operations and counter-radicalization efforts.

Drone Warfare

Definition: The use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for surveillance, targeted strikes, and combat.

Example:U.S. drone strikes in Pakistan and Yemen targeted terrorist leaders like Osama bin Laden’s deputy, Ayman al-Zawahiri.

Conflict Management

Definition: Diplomatic, economic, and military strategies used to contain or resolve conflicts.

Example:The Camp David Accords (1978) brokered peace between Israel and Egypt.

State-Building

Definition: The process of constructing political institutions, infrastructure, and governance systems in post-conflict regions.

Example: The U.S. attempted state-building in Afghanistan (2001–2021) but struggled with corruption and insurgency.

Principal-Agent Problems in Patron-Client States

Definition: When a powerful state (patron) supports a weaker state (client), but the client acts in ways that conflict with the patron’s interests.

Example: The U.S. and South Vietnam (1960s)—while the U.S. wanted reform, the South Vietnamese government was corrupt and ineffective, undermining U.S. goals.