Unit 1 Vocabulary Flashcards - Myers' Psychology for the AP Course (Chapter 1)

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and definitions from Unit 1 notes.

nature–nurture

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. today’s science views traits and behaviors as arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.

natural selection

the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change.

environment

every non genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to our experiences of the people and things around us.

heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.

genes

the biochemical units of heredity.

genome

the complete instructions for making an organism.

identical (monozygotic) twins

individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

individuals who developed from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings, but they shared a prenatal environment.

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).

epigenetics

above or in addition to genetics; the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression without a DNA change.

nervous system

the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord.

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body.

nerves

bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the CNS with muscles, glands, and sensory organs.

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles, also called the skeletal nervous system.

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs; its sympathetic division arouses and its parasympathetic division calms.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy.

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk reflex.

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life-support center.

dendrites

a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body.

axon

the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; it enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next.

glial cells (glia)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory.

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

refractory period

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state.

all-or-none response

a neuron’s reaction of either firing with full-strength or not firing.

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron; the tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons; when released, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron.

endorphins

morphine within; natural, opioid-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action.

antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action.

endocrine system

the body’s slow chemical communication system; a set of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

hormones

chemical messengers manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.

psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perceptions and moods.

substance use disorder

a disorder characterized by continued substance use despite resulting life disruption.

depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring larger and larger doses to experience the drug’s effect.

addiction

an everyday term for compulsive substance use and sometimes for dysfunctional behavior patterns that continue despite harmful consequences.

withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior.

barbiturates

drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.

opioids

opium and its derivatives; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.

stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

hallucinogens

psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

near-death experience

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death, often similar to drug-induced hallucinations.

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes; some call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

levels of analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.

neuroplasticity

the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

lesion

tissue destruction; brain lesions may occur naturally, during surgery, or experimentally.

EEG (electroencephalogram)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface, measured by electrodes on the scalp.

MEG

a brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity.

CT (computed tomography) scan

a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure.

PET (positron emission tomography)

a technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a task.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique using magnetic fields and radio waves to produce images of soft tissue; MRI scans show brain anatomy.

fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing blood flow and brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans; shows brain function as well as structure.

hindbrain

the region consisting of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; directs essential survival functions and coordinates movement and balance.

midbrain

found atop the brainstem; connects hindbrain with forebrain, controls some motor movement, and transmits auditory and visual information.

forebrain

consists of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities.

brainstem

the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; automatic survival functions.

medulla

the hindbrain structure that is the brainstem’s base; controls heartbeat and breathing.

thalamus

the forebrain’s sensory control center; directs messages to the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus; filters information and plays a role in arousal.

cerebellum

the hindbrain’s little brain; coordinates movement, balance, and enables nonverbal learning and memory.

limbic system

a neural system located mostly in the forebrain that includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus, and pituitary gland; linked to emotions and drives.

amygdala

two lima-bean–sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

hypothalamus

a limbic system structure below the thalamus; directs maintenance activities, governs endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward.

hippocampus

a neural center in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the forebrain’s hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center.

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying behind the forehead; enable language processing, muscle movements, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning.

parietal lobes

the portion of the cortex lying at the top of the head toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

occipital lobes

the portion of the cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive visual information.

temporal lobes

the portion of the cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes auditory areas and enables language processing.

motor cortex

a cortical area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

somatosensory cortex

a cortical area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, but involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons.

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that separates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers linking them.

consciousness

our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition.

dual processing

the principle that information is often processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it.

parallel processing

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously.

sequential processing

processing one aspect at a time; used for new information or difficult problems.

sleep

a periodic natural loss of consciousness. not due to coma, anesthesia, or hibernation.

circadian rhythm

our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep; a stage with vivid dreams; muscles are relaxed but body systems are active.

alpha waves

slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; all cycles except REM.

hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external stimulus.