Exam 2 Study Guide: Intro to Psychology > Arreola Scripps

What is classical conditioning?

Learning through association of 2 stimuli

Conditioning

A relatively permanent change in an organisms behavior due to experience

- classical conditioning

- operant conditioning

stimulus

Event or situation that evokes a response

Neutral stimulus

a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

Conditioned stimulus

An originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

conditioned response

a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response

Unconditioned response

unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus

Pavlov's experiment

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)

UCS: food

CS: bell

UCR: drool

CR: drool

acquisition

Initial learning stage in classical conditioning in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place

Extinction

Extinction is the disappearance/unlearning of a certain behavioral pattern. (i.e. quitting smoking, you no longer crave cigarettes at 5pm as you used to when you were a heavy smoker--that behavior has been changed.

spontaneous recovery

After a rest period, an extinguished conditioned response spontaneously recovers, but if the conditioned stimulus persists alone, the conditioned response becomes extinct again

(i.e. You have quit your heavy smoking habits and have been doing well with not craving cigarettes. However, you randomly wake up one day really craving a cigarette just like when you were a heavy smoker.)

stimulus generalization

Responding similarly to similar stimuli.

Scared around all furry animals when originally conditioned with a white bunny

stimulus discrimination

a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus

Only being scared of white bunnies and not other animals

Operant Conditioning

Forming of an association between behaviors and the consequence

Operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli

Reinforcement

any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

Positive reinforcement

Added consequence increases behavior

Negative reinforcement

Removal of stimulus increases behavior

Positive punishment

Added consequence decreases a behavior

Negative punishment

Removal of stimulus decreasing behavior

Shaping

is the gradual building of a response due to increased rewards when the chosen behavior (or similar behavior) is exhibited.

Successive approximations

steps within shaping where a behavior similar to the goal behavior is exhibited and rewarded as it is a step in the right direction.

Intrinsic motivation

A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake (you eat an extra dessert with dinner simply because you want to)

extrinsic motivation

a desire from outside sources such as rewards or threats of punishment (you study extra hard on the test because you want to get rewarded by your parents)

Observational learning

learning by observing others

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a behavior

Bandura's "bobo" doll experiment

observational learning

Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment showed that children learn behaviors by observing and imitating others. Initially, kids played calmly with the doll, but after watching adults act aggressively toward it, they began to do the same. The study demonstrated that exposure to aggressive or prosocial models influences children’s behavior—antisocial models lead to antisocial actions, while prosocial models encourage positive, helpful behavior.

Mirror neurons

Mirror neurons are neurons that are activated through visual empathy/imitation, and exhibit the same reaction in the brain as if actually doing the action/task they are just observing. (eating an apple→kid watching someone eat an apple (mirror neuron is activated, when the brain is analyzed it appears as if the kid was actually eating the apple not only watching someone eat it)

Cross sectional research

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.

1. Nature and nurture

2. can also shed light on whether development happens gradually (continuity) or through distinct (Piagets) stages.

3. study how people change or stay the same (stability) across different ages (change)

Longitudinal reseach

collecting data repeatedly on the same individuals as they age

1. Nature and nurture

2. Continuity and stages: example) Watching the same children move through Piaget’s cognitive stages over several years.

3. Stability and change: Follows the same people over time to see how consistent their traits or behaviors remain.

Continuity

Emphasizes experience and learning

View development as a continuous gradual shaping process

Stages of Development

Emphasizes bio maturation

View development as a sequence of genetically predisposed distinct stages

Nature vs nurture influences on development

Nature:

• Development is driven primarily by genetics and biological factors.

• Our traits, abilities, and behaviors are inherited.

• Example: A person’s athletic ability or intelligence is largely due to inherited genes.

Nurture:

• Development is shaped by environmental influences — experiences, culture, learning, upbringing.

• Example: A child’s musical talent develops because their parents encourage practice and provide lessons.

Zygote

Fertilized Egg

Life cycle begins at conception when one sperm cell unites with an egg to form a zygote

Enters 2-week period of rapid cell division

Embryo

Zygotes inner cells become embryo

Outer cells become placenta

An embryo is a developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through 2 months

Fetus

body organs behind to form and function

By 9 weeks, the fetus is recognizably human to birth

Teratogens

Agent, such as a chemical or virus, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Alcohol, nicotine, cannabis

Main findings regarding rats being reared in enriched vs impoverished environments

The enriched rat brain cell branches out more (developed thicker cerebral cortices (outer brain layer involved in thinking and problem-solving)), better cognitive performance

Assimilation

Interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing understandings

Accomodation

adapting our current understanding to incorporate new information

Object permanence

By 8 months, awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Conservation

properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Piaget: Kids are 6-7 in preoperational stage

Egocentrism

Preschoolers have difficulty perceiving things from another's perspective

Piaget

Theory of mind

Involves the ability to read the mental state of others (Preschool age understand false beliefs)

Delayed gratification

is the ability to resist immediate small rewards with the promise of larger rewards later on.

The "Marshmallow Experiment"

t was a study done where young kids (3-5yrs) were left alone in a room with one marshmallow and promised that if they did not eat it, that in 15 minutes the adult would come back with a second marshmallow for the kid to eat as well. The study found that older kids were able to wait and resist the temptation of the single marshmallow in front of them for the greater long term rewards, while some younger kids gave in and ate the single marshmallow before the adult returned to the room. 

Piaget's theory of cognitive development

1. the idea that the mind of a kid develops in 4 main stages through concepts like the schema, assimilation and accommodation.

Preoperational stage (Stage 2)

(2-7)

pretend play and symbolic thinking are formed, 

as well as the understanding of egocentrism/viewing other’s perspectives (2-7yrs)

Concrete operational (Stage 3)

children understand change in form/quantity (conservation) and basic math (7-12yrs)

Formal operational

12-adulthood

abstract logic and mature moral/rational thinking is developed (12yrs-adulthood)

Erikson's theory of psychosocial development

8 stages of psychosocial development

Infancy: trust vs mistrust

Toddlerhood: autonomy vs shame/doubt

Preschool: initiative vs guilt

Elementary school: competence vs inferiority 

Adolescence: identity vs role confusion 

Young adulthood: intimacy vs isolation

Middle adulthood: generativity vs stagnation

Late adulthood: integrity vs despair

Harlow's monkey attachment study

Monkeys display a marked preference for mothers for contact comfort and secure base; rocking, warmth, and feeding

The strange situation experiment

Mary Ainsworth experiment; To study attachment styles between infants and their caregivers — specifically, how infants respond to separation and reunion with their mother in an unfamiliar setting.

• Attachment style reflects the quality of caregiving and the child’s sense of security.

• Secure attachment → predicts healthier social, emotional, and cognitive development later in life.

• Insecure attachment → linked with greater anxiety, difficulty in relationships, or emotional regulation challenges.

attatchment

an emotional tie with another person

Secure attatchment

attachments rooted in trust and marked by intimacy

Insecure attachment (avoidant/anxious)

• Insecure–avoidant attachment: Involves emotional distance and avoidance of closeness or dependence on others.

• Insecure–anxious (ambivalent) attachment: Marked by clinginess, fear of abandonment, and a strong need for reassurance.

Secure base

• The caregiver provides a reliable base from which the child feels safe to explore the world.

• Gives confidence to venture out, knowing support is available if needed.
  Example: A toddler explores a playground but frequently looks back to make sure their parent is nearby.

Temperament

Temperament is a person’s natural, biologically based style of emotional reactivity and self-regulation — how we respond to the world around us.
It’s evident early in life and tends to remain relatively stable over time.

Stable: emotional reactivity (cautious vs boisterous children) or emotional 

intensity (angry outbursts)

Changing: extraversion/introversion or optimism/pessimism

4 main parenting styles

Authoritarian

Permissive

Authoritative

Neglectful

Authoritarian

low warmth, high control, strict, punishments

Outcome: obedients but less happy and lower self esteem

Permissive

high warmth, low control, few rules, avoids conflict

outcome: impulsive, less self disciplined

Neglectful

Uninvolved; they are neither demanding nor responsive

response: lack social skills, low academic performance

Authoritative

High warmth, high control, set clear rules but listens

outcome: high self esteem, responsible, self disciplined

Which brain region begins to atrophy as we age?

Hippocampus memory

Motivation

a need or desire that directs/energizes behavior

Drive-reduction theory

Physiological needs (hunger/thirst) create an aroused state that drives us to reduce the need (eating/drinking) restore homeostasis

ex) feel hungry → eat to restore energy

Arousal theory

Humans seek to maintain an optimal level of arousal (not too bored, not too stressed).

ex) studying in quiet place to study in less stress

party on a saturday night then sit bored

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

We prioritize survival-based needs and then social needs more than the needs for esteem and meaning

ex) focused on eating over going out to see friends

Instinct theory

Behavior is driven by innate, biological instincts that aid survival.

ex) instinct of infants to suck on anything near them (instinct breastfeeding)

Yerkes-Dodson law

• Performance is best at moderate levels of arousal.

  • Too little → boredom, low motivation.

  • Too much → stress, poor performance.

• Example: A little anxiety before a test helps you focus; too much anxiety hurts performance

Homeostasis

Tendency to maintain a balanced internal state

ex) body temp rises → sweat; body temp decreases → shivering

What are drives

A drive is when a physiological need is left unmet

That drive pushes us to reduce the need

Aroused state caused by an unmet need.

Instincts

Innate, unlearned behavior pattern common to a species.

Incentives

External stimulus that motivates behavior.

ex) getting money to work at a job

Needs

Basic biological or psychological requirement

ex) food, water, belonging

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Human motives

1. Physiological needs

2. Safety needs (security/stability)

3. Belongingness and love needs

4. Esteem needs (achievement)

5. Self-actualization needs (fulfill potential)

6. Self-transcendence needs (helping others, spirituality)

self-actualization

need to live up to our fullest potential and creativity

Self-transcendence

1. Meaning and purpose beyond self (helping others, spirituality).

Ostracism

Being socially excluded threatens the need to belong

Grit

passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

Main findings regarding impact of social rejection (Kipling Williams study) brain region

ostracism elicits increased activity in brain areas, such as the anterior cingulate cortex, that also respond to physical pain

Connor & Washburn study

Washburn swallows balloon, which measures stomach contractions > presses key when he feels hungry

Found that stomach contractions accompany hunger, but hunger also occurs without stomach activity → signals come from the brain too.

Glucose

Triggers a feeling of hunger when low blood sugar

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues.

Increases in hormone insulin (secreted by pancreas) diminish blood glucose, partly by converting it to stored fat

Leptin

Hormone from fat cells → reduces appetite.

High leptin = stop eating.

hormone that signals the hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce appetite and increase the amount of energy used

Ghrelin

hormone secreted by empty stomach; Secreted by empty stomach → stimulates hunger

Growling stomach = ghrelin rise.

Orexin

secreted by the hypothalamus; triggers hunger

PYY

digestive tract intestine hormone; tells brain "I'm not hungry"

Arcuate nucleus

Located in the hypothalamus; monitors hunger hormones (ghrelin, leptin, PYY) and regulates appetite.

Preferences for sweet and salt tastes are linked to ____. Association between carbs and behavior

Serotonin boost

Carbohydrates (like pasta or bread) can boost serotonin → improve mood (comfort food).

Cannon-Bard Theory

Emotion-arousing stimuli → Body + Emotion simultaneously

Our heart races at the same time that we feel afraid when we see a bear

(argue emotions happen too fast for body changes to cause them)

2-factor theory

Stimulus → Arousal + Cognitive label → Emotion

Heart races → “I’m scared” → feel fear.

(supported by spillover effect)

Cognitive appraisal

Emotion depends on personal interpretation of the situation.

You interpret a roller coaster as fun, not scary.

Spillover effect

arousal spills over from one event to the next, influencing the emotion in another situation

ex) after a funeral, for the rest of the day you are overly sensitive stimuli

2 dimensions of emotions

1. Arousal: High (excited) Sympathetic vs. Low (calm) Parasympahetic.

2. Valence: Positive (happy) vs. Negative (sad).
   Example:

• High arousal + positive = joy.

• High arousal + negative = anger.

• Low arousal + positive = contentment.

Stability

Traits and characteristics (like temperament or personality) remain consistent throughout life.

Example: A shy child grows up to be a reserved adult.

Change

• Traits can shift and evolve over time due to experiences, environment, or maturity.

• Example: A rebellious teen becomes a responsible adult after life experience

Sensorimotor Stage 1

thinking and reasoning develop through stages 

of development/schemas are formed through assimilation of new knowledge/object permanence (0-2yrs)

Safe Haven

Caregiver comfort in distress