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What is the main focus of Bentham's Utilitarianism when deciding how to behave?
The end purpose or goal (the outcome) of an action.
According to Bentham’s Utilitarianism, what should moral judgments be based on?
The consequences or outcomes of an action.
Does Bentham’s Utilitarianism believe in absolute moral rules?
No, it does not believe in absolute rules that apply to all people at all times.
How are moral decisions made in Bentham’s Utilitarianism?
Decisions are made relative to the situation.
Who developed the ethical theory of Utilitarianism?
Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.
What principle is at the heart of Utilitarianism?
Right actions are those that produce the greatest total happiness or pleasure for everyone affected by the consequences.
According to Utilitarianism, what makes an action wrong?
An action is wrong if it does not produce the greatest total happiness or pleasure.
What does Act Utilitarianism focus on first when determining morality?
Specific actions, which are considered moral or immoral based on their outcomes.
How does Act Utilitarianism develop general rules?
From specific cases—it moves from specific actions to general principles.
When is a rule not enforced in Act Utilitarianism?
When following the rule would not lead to the greatest happiness.
What is a key criticism of Act Utilitarianism?
It could justify actions that are generally considered unacceptable if they lead to greater happiness.
Where does the word "utilitarian" come from, and what does it mean?
It comes from the Latin word utilis, meaning "useful."
What is the guiding principle of Utilitarianism called?
The Principle of Utility.
What does the Principle of Utility state?
The right action is the one that produces the greatest happiness (or least pain) for the most people when a moral choice is made.
What phrase is often used to summarize Utilitarianism?
"The greatest good for the greatest number."
What ethical theory did Jeremy Bentham develop?
Universal ethical hedonism.
What does universal ethical hedonism claim?
That everyone is equal and has an equal right to happiness.
According to Bentham, when is an action considered right?
When it brings or increases happiness.
What does Bentham mean by the quote: "Prejudice apart, the game of push-pin is of equal value with the arts and sciences of music and poetry"?
All pleasures are of equal value, regardless of their source—no pleasure is inherently superior to another.
What inspired Bentham to develop his ethical theory?
Reading Priestley’s On Government, where he encountered the phrase "the greatest good of the greatest number."
What historical context influenced Bentham’s ideas?
The Industrial Revolution, which brought poverty, disease, and overcrowded living conditions.
Why did Bentham become disillusioned with the legal system?
He believed it was more focused on making money than helping people.
What social institutions particularly concerned Bentham?
Prisons and hospitals.
What was Bentham’s view of the established Church?
He believed it supported inequality and preserved the social status quo.
What lines from a hymn illustrate Bentham's criticism of the Church’s support for inequality?
“The rich man in his castle,
The poor man at his gate,
God made them high and lowly,
And ordered their estate.”
What were some of Bentham’s early academic and personal talents?
He could read scholarly works at 3, played the violin at 5, and studied Latin and French at 6.
What radical group did Bentham lead, and what did they found?
The Philosophical Radicals, who founded the Westminster Review.
What happened to Bentham’s body after he died?
It was dissected, and his clothed skeleton is displayed at University College London.
What kinds of reforms did Bentham’s Utilitarianism help encourage?
Prison reform, anti-slavery laws, and the introduction of a postal service.
What did Bentham argue in Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789)?
That actions should be judged based on their benefit to the majority—this is known as the principle of utility.
Why is Bentham’s Utilitarianism considered scientific or Enlightenment-based?
Because it uses calculation (e.g., Hedonic Calculus) to assess morality, like a scientific method.
According to Bentham, what are the "two sovereign masters" that govern human behavior?
Pain and pleasure.
What role do pain and pleasure play in determining right and wrong, according to Bentham?
They point out what we ought to do and determine what we shall do; the standard of right and wrong is tied to them.
What does the principle of utility recognize about human nature?
That humans are subject to pain and pleasure, and morality should be built upon this foundation using reason and law.
What is Bentham's criticism of systems that ignore the principle of utility?
They deal in "sounds instead of sense," "caprice instead of reason," and "darkness instead of light."
How does Bentham define the principle of utility?
As the principle that approves or disapproves of actions based on their tendency to promote or oppose happiness.
Whose actions does the principle of utility apply to, according to Bentham?
Both private individuals and governments.
How does Bentham define "utility"?
The property of something that produces benefit, pleasure, or happiness—or prevents pain, evil, or unhappiness.
According to Bentham, what does the interest of the community consist of?
The sum of the interests of the individuals who compose it.
Why is it meaningless to talk about the interest of the community without understanding individual interest?
Because community interest is made up entirely of individual interests.
When does an action conform to the principle of utility?
When it tends to increase the happiness of the community more than it tends to lessen it.
What kind of action do governmental measures represent in Bentham’s view?
A type of action performed by individuals that should also conform to the principle of utility.
How might someone describe an action that conforms to utility for practical discussion?
As following a "law or dictate of utility."
What does it mean to be a partisan of the principle of utility?
To approve or disapprove of actions based on their tendency to increase or lessen happiness.
What can be said about an action that conforms to the principle of utility?
It ought to be done, or at least is not wrong to do—it is a right action.
Why must the legislator understand the value of pleasure and pain?
Because pleasure and pain are the tools with which laws work and the goals they aim to regulate.
What four factors determine the value of a pleasure or pain for an individual?
Intensity, duration, certainty/uncertainty, and nearness/remoteness.
What two additional factors must be considered when assessing the consequences of an action?
Fecundity (chance of being followed by the same kind of sensation) and purity (chance of not being followed by the opposite kind).
What is meant by "extent" when evaluating pleasure and pain?
The number of people affected by the pleasure or pain.
How should one assess the total tendency of an act on an individual?
Sum the values of all pleasures and pains it causes, directly and indirectly, and compare the balance.
How does Bentham suggest assessing the impact of an action on the community?
Repeat the assessment for each affected person and sum all results to see if the overall tendency is toward pleasure or pain.
Is Bentham’s calculation process meant to be applied in every case?
No, but it should always be kept in view; the closer a judgment comes to this method, the more precise it is.
According to Bentham, how are pleasure and pain referred to under different names?
Pleasure as good, profit, convenience, benefit, happiness; pain as evil, mischief, disadvantage, loss, unhappiness.
How does Bentham justify the practical value of his theory?
It reflects how people naturally evaluate the worth of things like property, based on their ability to bring pleasure or avoid pain.
Why is the intensity of pleasure often ignored when assessing property value?
Because it depends on personal use, which can't be predicted without knowing the specific pleasures or pains involved.
What did Bentham believe was the fundamental purpose of human life?
The pursuit of happiness.
According to Bentham, what should be promoted and what should be suppressed?
Promote factors that increase pleasure and suppress those that produce pain.
What did Bentham introduce in Chapter 4 of Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation?
The hedonistic (hedonic) calculus.
What role should the law play according to Bentham’s utilitarianism?
Enforce actions and impose sentences that most effectively maximize pleasure and minimize pain.
How did Bentham believe pleasures and pains could be used in decision-making?
They could be constructed into a calculus of value to evaluate actions.
What are the seven factors considered in Bentham’s Hedonic Calculus?
Intensity, duration, certainty, remoteness, richness (fecundity), purity, and extent.
What is purity in Bentham’s Hedonic Calculus?
The chance that a pleasure will not be followed by pain, or a pain will not be followed by pleasure.
What is remoteness in the context of Hedonic Calculus?
The nearness or remoteness of a pleasure or pain in time—how soon it will occur.
What does richness (fecundity) refer to in the Hedonic Calculus?
The chance that a pleasure will be followed by more pleasures (or pain by more pain).
What is intensity in Bentham’s Hedonic Calculus?
The strength or degree of the pleasure or pain.
What is meant by certainty in the Hedonic Calculus?
The likelihood that the pleasure or pain will actually occur.
What does extent mean in Bentham’s Hedonic Calculus?
The number of people affected by the pleasure or pain.
What does duration refer to in the Hedonic Calculus?
The length of time that a pleasure or pain lasts.