AP Psychology Unit 4

Drive Reduction Theory

• the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

Arousal Theory

• our need to maintain an optimal level of arousal motivates behaviors that meet no physiological need

Yerkes-Dodson Law (connects to Arousal Theory)

• performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

• we perform our best at a moderate level of arousal

Sensation-seeking Theory

• seek out novel and intense experiences

• disinhibition: desire for freedom from conventional rules

• boredom susceptibility: tendency to experience boredom/restlessness when not engaged in thrill seeking

Self-determination Theory

• human beings strive for growth

• internal sources of motivation are essential

Motivational Conflict Theory

• approach-approach: conflict that occurs when you have two desirable options to decide between

• avoidance-avoidance: conflict that occurs when you have two undesirable options to decide between

• aproach-avoidance: conflict that occurs when you have options with good and bad to it to decide between

Instinct Theory (non-human animals)

• there is a genetic basis for unlearned, species-typical behavior

Incentive Theory

• an external goal has the capability to motivate behavior

Hunger Influencers

• ghrelin: causes stomach contractions to promote hunger

• leptin: produced by fat cells and eliminates hunger

• pituitary gland: controls endocrine glands

• hypothalamus: maintains homeostasis and controls the pituitary

James-Lange Theory

• stimulus to arousal to emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory

• stimulus to emotion AND arousal

Schachter-Singer Theory (Two-Factor Theory)

• stimulus to cognitive label AND arousal to emotion

Lazarus Theory

• stimulus to cognitive appraisal to emotion

Broaden and Build Theory of Emotions

• positive emotions can help to expand our ability to cope with negative emotions

• expands an individual’s momentary thought-action repertoire

• leads to a positive spiral

Display Rules

• a culture’s informal norms that dictate when, where, and how it is appropriate to express emotions

Facial Feedback Effect

• the tendency of facial muscles’ states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

Behavior Feedback Effect

• the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions

Id

• a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives

• operates of pleasure principle

Ego

• largely conscious “executive” part of personality that mediates the demands of the id, superego, and reality

• operates on the reality principle

Superego

• the part of personality that represents internalized ideals and provides standards of judgement (the conscience) for the future

Denia

• refusal to believe or even perceive painful realities

Projective Tests

• a personality test that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projections of one’s inner dynamics

TAT (Thematic Apperception Test)

• a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests the the stories the make up about ambiguous scenes

Rorschach inkblot test

• most widely used projective test in which inkplots are interpretated

Theory of Humanism

• theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth

Self-Actualization

• the motivation to fufill one’s potential

• tip of Maslow’s pyramid of needs

Unconditional Positive Regard

• a caring, accepting, non-judgemental attitude

• could help people develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

Self-Concept

• all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question “who am I”

Factor Analysis

• a statistical procedure that identifies clusters/factors of test items that tap basic comp

Big Five

• conscientiousness

• agreeableness

• neuroticism

• openness

• extroversion

Social Cognitive Perspective

• views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits (including thinking) and their social context

Reciprocal Determinism

• the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

Self-Efficacy

• one’s sense of competence and effectiveness

Self-Esteem

• one’s feelings of high or low self-worth

Attribution Theory

• the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition

• dispositional attributions: stable, enduring traits

• situational attributions

Attribution Bias

• the tendency to inaccurately attribute the causes of someone’s behavior to their character while underestimating situational factors

Fundamental Attribution Bias

• the tendency for observers when analyzing others’ behavior to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

Actor-Observer Bias

• occurs when you place more emphasis on how external influences affect your behavior and less emphasis on the impact of internal factors

Self-Serving Bias

• a tendency to attribute one’s successes to internal factors and one’s failures to external factors

Explanatory Style

• how people explain to themselves why the experience a particular event, either positive or negative

Locus of Control

• refers to an individual’s belief about the extent to which their actions can influence the events in their lives

• internal locus of control: the perception that we control our own fate

• external locus of control: the perception that change our outside forces beyond our personal control determine our face

Person Perception

• the processes by which people think about, appraise, and evaluate other people

• an important aspect of person perception is the attributions of motives for actions

Mere Exposure Effect

• the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

Self-Fufilling Prophecy

• a belief that leads to its own fufillment

Upward vs. Downward Social Comparison

• upward: when people compare themselves to someone they perceive to be superior

• downward: comparing ourselves to those who are worse off than us on the comparison point

Relative Deprivation

• the perception by an individual that the amount of a desired resource they have is less than some comparison standard

Prejudice

• an unjustifiable attitude toward a group and its members

• includes stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings

Discrimination

• unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

Just-World Phenomenon

• the tendency for people to believe the world is just and people therefore get what they deserve

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

• the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races

In Group Bias

• the tendency to favor our own group

Ethnocentricism

• assuming the superiority of one’s ethnic group

Belief Perserverance

• the tendency to hold onto a belief even when presented with evidence that contradicts it

Cognitive Dissonance

• the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent

• two possible responses: alter behavior, or alter beliefs

Social Influence Theory

• people are more likely to do whatever they see as being the norm

Normative vs. Informative Social Influence

• normative: influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

• informational: influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept other’s opinions about reality

The Elaboration Likelihood Model

• a theory in pschology that explains how people process persuasive messages and form attitudes

Central vs. Peripheral Route to Persuasion

• central: occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

• peripheral: occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness

Halo Effect

• attractive people and products are seen as more reputable

Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon

• the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a large request

Door-in-the-Face Phenomenon

• following up an extravagant request with a reasonable one such that the subject complies

Conformity

• adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

Individualistic vs. Collectivistic Societies

• individualistic: independent identity

• collectivistic: interdependent identity

Social Facilitation

• improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

Social Loafing

• the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

Deindividuation

• the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occuring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Group Polarization

• the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

Groupthink

• the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Diffusion of Responsibility

• individuals feeling less responsible for taking actions or making decisions when they are part of a group

False Consensus Effect

• see their own behavioral choices and judgements as relatively common and appropriate to existing cirumstances

Superordinate Goals

• shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

Social Traps

• a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each preserving their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

Industrial/Organization Psychologists

• apply psychological concepts to optimize human behavior in the workplace

Prosocial Behavior

• voluntary actions intended to benefit others (without expecting a reward)

Altruism

• unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Social Exchange Theory

• the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

Social Reciprocity Norm

• an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

Social Responsiblity Norm

• an expectation that people will help those needing their help

The Bystander Effect

• the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

Situational and Attentional Variables

• situational: environmental factors that may impact people’s behaviors

• attentional: factors that affect how well a person can focus their attention including distractions, cognitive load, and current emotional state

Displacement

• shifting aggressive/sexual impulses toward a more acceptable/less threatening object or person

Projection

• disguising one’s own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

Rationalization

• offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening reasons for one’s actions

Reaction Formation

• switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites

Regression

• retreating to an earlier psychosexual stage

Repression

• the basic defence mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Sublimation

• transferring of unacceptable impulses into socially valued motives