sociology final exam

collective action

a collaborative effort that takes place in groups and diverges from the social norms of the situation

crowd collective action

takes place when members of a group are face to face

mass collective action

collective action in which close physical proximity is not necessary, such as a letter-writing campaign 

convergence theory

according to this theory, collective action happens when people with similar ideas and tendencies gather in the same place (does not explain inconsistency of group action)

contagion theory

according to this theory, collective action arises because of people’s tendency to conform to the behavior of others with whom they are in close contact (downplays individual agency and fails to explain inconsistency of group action)

emergent norm theory

this theory emphasizes the influence of leaders in promoting particular norms that members of a group then follow (doesn’t explain why particular people become leaders or why some actions emerge as norms within a group and others do not, importance of social norms in crowd behavior)

static identity

an aspect of your identity that doesn’t change and that determines at least one group to which you belong (such as race)

dynamic identity

an aspect of your identity that is more fluid and that is determined by a group to which you belong (such as you working as a lifeguard for one summer)

social movement

collective behavior that is purposeful, organized, and institutionalized, but not ritualized

5 elements of social movements**

scope (reform or radical), type of change (innovative or conservative), targets (group-focused or individual-focused), methods of work (peaceful/nonviolent or violent), range (local to global)

alternative social movements

seek limited social change and tend to be focused on a narrow group of people (mothers against drunk driving, alcoholics anonymous)

redemptive social movements

focused on a narrow group of people, but they advocate for more radical change (mission trips)

reformative social movements

advocate for limited social change but seek to affect that change across an entire society (buy nothing day, environmental movement)

revolutionary social movements

seek to make radical changes across an entire society (civil rights movement)

resource-mobilization theory 

recognizes the importance of political context and goals to the development of social movements but also emphasizes that social movements are unlikely to emerge without the necessary resources

stages of social movements

emergence, coalescence, routinization/institutionalization

social movement organization

a group developed to recruit new members and coordinate participation in a particular social movement (raise money, clarify goals, structure participation)

grassroots organizations

rely on high levels of community-based membership participation to promote social change (lacks hierarchical structure and tends to work through existing political structures to promote social change)

americans and volunteering

americans traditionally have had high participation levels in volunteer activities, seems to have declined somewhat, possibly due to the influence of the internet: can join groups online and donate without participating in face to face activities

paradigm

the framework within which scientists operate (common paradigms within sociology: conflict, functionalists, symbolic interactionists)

normative science

the idea that science follows objective rules of evidence and should be unaffected by the personal beliefs or values of scientists

normal science

refers to science conducted within an existing paradigm

paradigm shift/scientific revolution

occurs when enough scientific anomalies accrue to challenge the existing paradigm, showing that it is incomplete or inadequate to explain all observed phenomena

paradigm shift/scientific revolution examples

scientific revolution, digital revolution, artificial intelligence

matthew effect

refers to the notion that certain scientific results get more notice and have more influence based on the existing prestige of the researchers involved

global warming

refers to the rising atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, resulting in higher global average temperatures

root cause of global warming

can be linked to human activity, such as deforestation and the burning of coal, gas and oil

examples of global warming

prolonged heat waves, more and bigger hurricanes, debilitating droughts

green revolution

refers broadly to two agricultural trends of the twentieth century: introduction of high-yield crop varietals in developing countries, improvements in agricultural technologies such as irrigation systems, fertilizers, pesticides

important results of green revolution

increased incomes, increases in the value of formal schooling, making farming more of a collective, community endeavor

potential negative outcomes of green revolution

makes farmers more dependent on a smaller number of crops, increased risks if crops fail, reduced variety in the diet, depletion of nutrients in the soil, increased pressure on water resources