Chapter 14: Motivation and Emotion

motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

primary drives

innate drives, such as hunger, thirst, and sexual desire, that arise from basic biological needs

secondary drive

the desire to obtain learned reinforcers such as money or social acceptance

Olds and Milner

Demonstrated existence of pleasure center in the brain using "self-stimulation" studies in rats

instinct theory

supported by evolutionary psychology, posits that the learning of species-specific behavior motivates organisms to do what is necessary to ensure their survival

arousal theory

states that main reason people are motivated to perform any action is to maintain an ideal level of psychological arousal

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the psychological principle stating that performance is best under conditions of moderate difficulty. Also, high arousal for easy tasks and low arousal for difficult tasks is preferred.

opponent process theory

relevant to the concept of addiction, we start off at a a motivational baseline, where we are not motivated to act, then we encounter a stimulus that feels good and now we have motivation to seek out the stimulus that made us feel good. Our brains tend to revert back to neutrality over time due to an opponent process which works in opposition tot he initial motivation for seeking the stimulus. After repeated exposure to a stimulus, its emotional affects wear off but opponent process does not wear off and therefore we tend to associate the opponent process with the initial stimulus. We need larger amounts of the original stimulus just to be at baseline.

drive-reduction theory

posits that psychological needs put stress on the body and we are motivated to reduce the negative experience.

homeostasis

state of regulatory equilibrium

set point

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

ventromedial hypothalamus

depresses hunger

lateral hypothalamus

brings on hunger

Hypothalamus

controls feeding

leptin

A hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that is released when there is a buildup of fat cells due energy consumption This signal is interpreted by the hypothalamus and decreases feelings of hunger.

blood glucose

glucose level in blood

glucostatic hypothesis

claims that hypothalamus has cells that detect glucose which helps in control eating

insulin

A protein hormone synthesized in the pancreas that regulates blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into tissues

lipostatic hypothesis

states that the fat is the measured and controlled substance in the body that regulates hunger, supported by discovery of leptin which helps monitor the amount of fat in the body

anorexia nervosa

more common in females, characterized by an individual being 15 percent below ideal body weight.

body dysmorphia

distorted body image

bulimia nervosa

characterized by binge eating followed by purging

pituitary gland

motivation to reproduce relies on hypothalamus which stimulates pituitary gland and ultimately the production of androgens and estrogens.

androgens

male sex hormones

estrogens

female sex hormones

instinct

genetically programmed patterns of behavior

Abraham Maslow

Proposed the hierarchy of needs

self actualization

occurs when people creatively and meaningfully fulfill their own purpose

intrinsic factors

motivation factors that originate from within ourselves

extrinsic factors

motivation factors coming from the outside world

overjustification effect

when our intrinsic motivation decreases if we receive extrinsic rewards for the same behavior

self determination

need to feel competent and in control

self efficacy

belief that we can or cannot attain a particular goal

Henry Murray

believed that although motivation is rooted in biology, individual differences and varying environments can cause motivation and needs to be expressed in different ways.

need for affiliation

people with this need like to avoid conflict, like to be members of groups, and dislike being evaluated

cognitive dissonance

when people have conflicting views or actions

Kurt Lewin

classified conflict of motives into 4 types

approach-approach

one has to choose between two desirable options

avoidance-avoidance

one has to choose between two unpleasant options

approach-avoidance

only one choice is presented, but it carries both pluses and minuses

multiple approach-avoidance

many options are available, but each has positives and negatives

James-Lange theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

Cannon-Bard theory

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion

Schachter-Singe two factor theory

The first factor after a stimulus is physiological arousal, then we label the experience of arousal and then we experience emotion

Paul Ekman

observed facial expressions from a variety of cultures and pointed out that, regardless of country, the expressions of emotion were almost identical (ANGER, FEAR, DISGUST, SURPRISE, HAPPINESS, and SADNESS)

flashback

recall of a memory of an experience

prefrontal cortex

critical for emotional experience along with temperament and deicison making

autonomic nervous system

responsible for controlling the activities of most organs and glands, controls arousal

sympathetic nervous system

provides body with brief, intense, vigorous responses, referred to as fight or flight system because it preapres individual for action.

parasympathetic nervous system

provides signals to the internal organs during a calm, resting state when no crisis is present. Allows for recovery and conservation of energy.

stress

causes a person to feel challenged or endangered

stressors

events that cause stress

transient

temporary challenges

chronic

continuing for a long time such as those that lead to job related stress, and can negatively impact health

fight or flight response

physiological response to stress

Walter Cannon

came up with fight or flight response

Hans Selye

came up with general adaptation syndrome

General Adaptation Syndrome

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

alarm

arousal of the sympathetic nervous system, resulting in a release of various stimulatory hormones.

corticosterone

Hormone used as a physiological index of stress

resistance

when parasympathetic nervous system starts to reduce arousal state, if stressor does not reduce, the body does not reduce arousal state to baselline

exhaustion

body's resources are depleted and tissue cannot be repaired

Richard Lazarus

developed a cognitive theory of how we respond to tress. Individual evaluates whether the event appears to be stressful (primary appraisal). If it is seen as threat, secondary appraisal takes place and assesses whether or not individual can handle the stress.

Type A pattern

typified by competitiveness, a sense of time urgency, and feelings of anger and hostility

Type B Pattern

behavior characterized by low level of competitiveness, low preoccupation with time issues, and generally easygoing attitude.