References for The Earth

• All volcanism begins in the mantle

• How the mantle is heated and rises

• Decompression melting and hydration melting at subduction zones

• Neutral buoyancy causing magma chambers where magma crystallises

Oppenheimer, 2011

• Mantle convection and plate tectonics work together in one system

• Upwelling of magma can create cracks in continents

• Radiometric dating shows magma is formed at different times due to recycling of former crust at subduction zones

• There is cordial flow and mixing in the mantle changing compositions

• Megaplumes

Tackley, 2000

• Mantle plume theory proposed in 1970s to explain intraplate hotspot volcanism

• Plumes begin at the core-mantle boundary and form trails as they experience partial melt

• Plumes have heads and tails, they rise due to hotter temperatures and being less dense due to chemical distinctions

• Plumes are unstable and move at different speeds and in different directions to break oceanic lithosphere and cause eruptions

Koppers et al., 2021

• Blobs form in the thermal boundary before destabilising and rising

• Once the plume reaches the Moho it gets trapped

• As the plume rises, latent heat is removed so it cools and becomes less buoyant, this can also occur due to residue below the lithosphere

Manglik & Christensen, 1997

• Plate tectonics link the surface and deep interior to allow for the exchange of elements needed for life on Earth

• The deep Earth stabilises habitability on Earth

• The main source of water on Earth comes from volcanic activities and upwelling making volcanism the main source of life

• Volcanic activity releases elements from the deep Earth that are bio-essential and creates food chains allowing for survival

• These all stop mass extinctions and support the conditions conducive to life on Earth

Wang et al., 2023

• Polymerisation of magma means it does not have a clear melting point, silicate polymers impact viscosity

• The variables of composition, pressure and volatile content combined with polymerisation mean partial melt occurs

• Crystallisation occurs in chambers, they can track changes and influence viscosity

• At subduction zones slabs sink and the water contained in the hydrated oceanic crust is expelled into the rising mantle wedge to lower melting points and promote melting

• Anomalous hotspots lead to mantle plumes up to 300 degrees hotter than the surrounding mantle

Francis & Oppenheimer, 2004

• The Gaia theory sees Earth as a global self-sustaining organism due to the holistic feedback systems regulating temperatures and gases

• AI could save the Gaia theory due to it’s intellectual powers aiding in understanding Earth’s systems and resilience mechanisms

Radford, 2019

• Aims to combine science with indigenous perspectives to allow for better conservation, mitigation and risk assessment

• Mount Ruapehu is seen as the place of Gods and the Life Force, Crate Lake supplies sustenance to the land

• The union of Father Sky and Mother Earth sees the land as the key value within the community and guards all domains of life

• Blending the scientific and indigenous knowledge can reduce social vunerability

Pardo et al., 2015

• Villagers are able to identify precursor events based on past knowledge and experiences

• The summit of the volcano on Ambae Island is seen as a sacred site so visits are forbidden as a form of hazard management

• The villagers live away from the streams to avoid flood risks and the paramount chief makes decisions in times of emergency, yet these are often miscommunicated due to political rivalries

Cronin et al., 2004

• The rights of nature has had the greatest impact in the Global South where Indigenous activism and lack of effective laws provide incentive for experimentation

• Ecuador is an example of a success

• A multi-disciplinary approach is needed to recognise where laws are needed and how they can be meaningful

Epstein et al., 2023

• The combination of sulphur and carbon outgassing from LIPs are key in impacting atmosphere and ocean circulation allowing for the survival of life on Earth

• Sulphur emissions are intense and occur in intervals to have net cooling impacts

• There are swings in climate as warmer carbon modes (the greenhouse effect) are followed by cooler sulphur modes (albedo effect) when sulphur is injected

• The swings impact hydrological cycling, weathering and ocean anoxia

• Sulphur aerosols have a shorter atmospheric residence than carbon so cannot have as longer term impact

Black et al., 2018

• Mt Pinatubo caused the largest perturbation of the century to particulate content in the stratosphere seeing temperatures drop as well as levels of stratospheric ozone

• The introduction of sulphuric acid aerosols increases planetary albedo due to more efficient scattering, they also act as condensation nuclei for clouds to reduce their size and increase secondary scattering efficiency

• Microphysical properties of aerosols determine their absorptivity, the Mt Pinatubo particles were very small so cooling dominated

• Coupling of volcanic chlorine emissions and anthropogenic CFCs caused ozone depletion

• This study allows models to be made more accurate and policy to be amended in the future to ensure greater quality of life

McCormick et al., 1995