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Learning
long-lasting change in behavior resulting from experience
can best be measured through changes in behavior
Classical conditioning
type of learning where people and animals can learn to associate neutral stimuli (ex: sound) with stimuli that produce reflexive, involuntary responses (ex: food) and will learn to respond similarly to the new stimulus as they did to the old one (ex: salivate).
Neutral stimuli
stimuli that only focuses attention
Unconditioned stimulus/US/UCS
original stimulus that elicits a natural, reflexive response
Unconditioned response/UR/UCR
the natural response elicited from the unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned response/CR
the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
Conditioned stimulus/CS
the originally irrelevant stimulus that now triggers a conditioned response after association with an unconditioned stimulus
Ivan Pavlov
Prior to dogs being Fed Meat a Clicking Noise occurred.
Dogs started salivating after awhile when the click occurred, prior to the meat being given
Dogs salivated whenever Click happened, even if there was no meat
Salivating became a Conditioned Association
Acquisition
The cognitive process of acquiring skill or knowledge
the acquiring of a new behavior that occurs once one responds to the CS without the US present
Delayed conditioning
acquisition with the presentation of the CS followed by the US
Trace conditioning
acquisition with the presentation of the CS, followed by a short break, followed by the presentation of the US
Simultaneous conditioning
acquisition with the presentation of the CS and the US at the same time
Backward conditioning
acquisition with the US presented first, followed by the CS
Extinction
the process of unlearning a behavior, achieved when the CS no longer elicits the CR
Spontaneous recovery
phenomenon where the CR briefly reappears upon presentation of the CS after a CR has been extinguished and no further training has taken place
Generalization
the tendency to respond to similar CS'
Discrimination
the ability to tell the difference between various stimuli
Little Albert
John Watson
Baby was shown the stuffed animals while a loud noise was banged next to his head
Became scared of animals
The loud noise is the US because it elicits the involuntary, natural response of fear (UR)
The rat is the US that becomes the Cs, and the CR is crying in response to presentation of the rat alone
Aversive conditioning
conditioning to avoid the US
Second-order/Higher-order conditioning
the brief use of a CS as a US to elicit a new stimulus (only possible once a CS elicits a CR)
Ex. By using a dog and a bell as our example, after the dog salivates to the bell (first-order conditioning), the bell can be paired repeatedly with a flash of light, and the dogs will salivate to the light alone (second-order conditioning). Even though the light has never been paired with the food.
Learned taste aversions
the aversion developed to certain foods due to illness after ingestion
Salient stimuli
easily noticeable stimuli
Taste aversions
John Garcia
Can learn association between taste and nausea even hours after eating
Adaptive for survival
Challenged idea that pairing must be immediate
Examples: Problems for chemotherapy
Binge Drinkers and tequila
Garcia effect
the ease with which animals learn taste aversions that occurs whenever nausea is paired with food or drink
Operant conditioning
type of learning based on the association of consequences with behaviors
Edward Thorndike
Law of Effect
law that states that if consequences to a behavior are pleasant, the stimulus-response connection will be strengthened, increasing the likelihood of that behavior; if consequences to a behavior are unpleasant, the stimulus-response connection will weaken, lessening the likelihood of that behavior
Skinner Box
a box that delivers food to animals with a lever to press or disk to peck
Reinforcer
any event that makes the behavior more likely to occur
Reinforcement
the process of reinforcing a behavior
Positive reinforcement
the addition of something to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring
Negative reinforcement
the removal of something to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring
Escape learning
the termination of an aversive stimulus
Avoidance learning
the avoidance of an aversive stimulus
Punishment
anything that makes a behavior less likely to occur
Most effective if it is delivered immediately after the unwanted behavior and if it is harsh.
Positive punishment (usually referred to as punishment)
the addition of something unpleasant to make a behavior less likely to occur
Omission training/negative punishment
the removal of something pleasant to make a behavior less likely to occur
Shaping
technique that reinforces the small steps used to reach the desired behavior
Ex. first we might reinforce the rat for going to the side of the box with the lever. Then we might reinforce the rat for touching the lever with any part of its body.
Chaining
technique that links together separate behaviors into a complex activity
Primary reinforcers
Reinforcers that have an innate basis because of their biological value to an organism
Anything we naturally want
Sleep
Sex
Air
Water
Secondary reinforcers
Stimuli that acquire their reinforcing power by their learned association with primary reinforcers
Money
Awards
Praise
Grades
Success
Power
Virtually any stimulus can
Generalized Reinforcer
Can be traded for anything
Ex. money
Token economy
system that uses tokens as rewards for performing desired behaviors
Premack principle
principle that states that more probable behaviors can be used to reinforce less probable behaviors
Continuous reinforcement
the reward of a desired behavior continuously
Partial-reinforcement schedules
the reward of a desired behavior intermittently
Partial-reinforcement effect
the phenomenon where behaviors will be more resistant to extinction if not reinforced continuously
Fixed-ratio schedule (FR)
schedule that requires a set number of responses before a response results in reinforcement
Variable-ratio schedule (VR)
schedule that varies the number of responses before a response results in reinforcement
Fixed-interval schedule (FI)
schedule that requires that a certain amount of time elapses before a response will result in reinforcement
Variable-interval schedule (VI)
schedule that varies the amount of time that elapses before a response will result in reinforcement
Ex. The rat will be reinforced for the first response made after an average of three minutes
Variable vs. Fixed
Variable schedules are more resistant to extinction than fixed schedules, and all partial reinforcement schedules are more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement.
Ratio vs. Interval
Ratio schedules typically result in higher response rates than interval schedules
Instinctive drift
the tendency for animals to forgo rewards to pursue their typical patterns of behavior
Cognitive learning
type of learning that depends on processes not directly observable that argues conditioning has a cognitive component
Contiguity model (V1)
-Ivan Pavlov model
-postulates that the more times things are paired, the greater the learning that will take place
Contingency model (V2)
-Robert Rescorla
-model that postulates that A is contingent upon B when A depends on B and vice versa
Observational learning/modeling
-Albert Bandura
-type of learning that occurs through the observation of a behavior (two parts: observation and imitation)
-Bobo doll experiment
Latent learning
-Edward Tolman
-type of learning that becomes obvious only once reinforcement is given for demonstrating it
Abstract learning
type of learning that involves understanding concepts rather than learning simply to secure a reward
Insight learning
-Wolfgang Kohler
-type of learning that occurs when one suddenly realizes how -to solve a problem