Geography OPTION F Food and Health

Food security

Food security

when people always have access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary requirements and personal preferences (and access to food in a socially acceptable way)

Nutrition

Nutrition at its most basic, is a regular and balanced diet for health and growth

Malnutrition

it is both deficiency and excess of imbalance of nutrients in a person’s intake

Disparities

a noticeable and usually a significant dissimilarity

Food Security Index

According to the economist, the “Global Food Security Index considers the issues of food availability, affordability, quality and safety, and natural resources and resilience “ ( number between 0-100). Trend: top countries in the global north, middle/high income, tourism and global status, access to service/technology and stable gov. (e.g. Finland 83.7) whilst bottom countries low income, instable politics, sub-Saharan nations, lack of service and technology and suffering health and sanitation (e.g. Yemen 40.1).

Hunger index

anks countries on a 100 point scale with 0 being the best score ( no hunger)

undernourishment (component of hunger index)

1. Undernourishment – the proportion of undernourished people as a percentage of the population

child wasting (component of hunger index)

2. Child wasting – the proportion of children under 5 who are suffering from wasting ( low weight for age, reflecting chronic undernutrition)

child stunting (3rd component of hunger index)

3. Child Stunting- the proportion of children under the age of 5 who suffer from stunting (low height for age, reflecting chronic undernutrition)

child morality (4th component of hunger index)

4. Child mortality – the mortality rate of children under the age of 5 reflecting the fatal synergy of inadequate nutrition and unhealthy environments)

Calorie intake

The amount of food measured in calories that a person consumes. However this varies for age, gender, physical activity and climate.

HICS and calorie intake

high calories mainly consisting of sugar and fats

LICS calorie intake

ow calories mostly made of grain. Have lower meat consumption

Limitations of calorie index

does not accurately reflect the quality of food or the quality of a good diet and mixed ranged demographic have different requirements.

Malnutrition

poor nourishmenet and refers to a diet that is lacking or with too many nutrients.

types of malnutrition

1. Defiency diseases result from a lack of specific vitamins or minerals

types of malnutrition

2. Obesity resulting from eating too much food

types of malnutrition

3. 
   Marasmus is a lack of calories

types of malnutrition

4. Kwashiorkor is a lack of protein in the diet

Double burden of malnutrition:

India has both obesity and undernutrition as well as non-communicable diseases risk factors. Children in LICS/MICS are more vulnerable to inadequate nutrition but are also exposed to high sugar high salt caloric food. Lower cost = lower quality (fast food chains)

1. Pattern 1 of the nutrition transition

Pattern 1 Hunter Gatherer: Individuals live highly active lifestyles, hunting and foraging for food. Diets typically are rich in fibrous plants and high in protein from lean wild animals.

2. pattern 2 of the nutrition transition

Pattern 2 Early Agriculture (mono-culture diet): Famine is common, slowing individuals’ growth and decreasing their body fat. Three decades of conflict and the climate crisis have left Somalia on the brink of famine and dangerously reliant on imported foods. (90% of grain is imported from Russia & Ukraine)

3. pattern 3 of the nutrition transition

Pattern 3: End of Famine | Famine recedes as income rises and nutrition improves. Consumption of fruits, vegetables and animal proteins increases. Starchy staples becomes less. Currently most low to middle income countries are rapidly moving from pattern 3 to pattern 4 in particular South East Asia. Countries such as Bangladesh and Vietnam are in the middle of this pattern with 2/3 of diets consisting of rice, vegetables and some form of protein (fish).

4. pattern 4 of the nutrition transition

Pattern 4: Overeating, Obesity-Related Diseases | (Western Diet & Global Supply Chain) Income rises and increased access to high calorie foods (high total fat, cholesterol, sugars) and less active lifestyles (more sedentary life). Also increased protein consumption and animal products. This is linked to the double burden of malnutrition in low-middle income countries such as India. In the early 1970s the average Chinese person ate 14kg (31lb) of meat a year. Now they eat 55kg, which is 150g, or five ounces, a day.

Limitations to the nutrition transition model

Data limitations, cultural context, global oversimplification,

5. pattern five of the nutrition transition

Pattern 5: Behavioural change | In response to increasing rates of obesity and obesity related changes chronic diseases, individual’s change their behaviour and communities promote behaviour changes to prevent these conditions. This is more prominent in high income countries such as Finland and Norway however, there has been a shift towards veganism and high-income countries in order to adopt more sustainable eating practices in the future.

• Communicable diseases (infectious)

Illnesses that spread from one person to another from an animal or human or from a surface or a food (e.g. Cholera). LIC countries such as Somalia.

• Non communicable diseases (non-infectious)

Life style based diseases that do not spread through other people but arte typically caused by human behaviours (e.g. Diabetes)

• Chronic Disease

Defined broadly by conditions that last a year or more requiring medical attention and is affecting everyday life (e.g. Arthritis).

• Degenerative Diseases

The result of a continuous process based on degenerative cell changes, affecting tissues or organs which will increasing deteriorate over time (e.g. Arthritis )  HICs ( for e.g. Canada) tend to have this more than LICS due to short mortality of LICs.

Limitations to the diseases model:

Does not take disability into account nor the quality of life. People with disability in the study had a mortality rate 4.7 times as high as the rate for the general population, after adjusting for differences in the age and sex structure of the populations.

• limitations to the disease model pt 2

The role of genetics. For example, genes play a massive part in diabetes and is one of the strongest risk factors to CVD, cancer, autoimmune diseases and other illnesses.

• limitations to the disease model pt 3

Oversimplification of the transition patterns, which do not fit neatly into either historical periods or geographic locations. Additionally, they may struggle to account for temporal variations and the potential for seasonal patterns in infectious diseases. E.g. Malaria strives in Nigeria due to the humid temperature

• strengths of the diseases model

Shows the strong connection between income and disease.

• strengths of the diseases model

Represents the historical transition of economic developments.

• strengths of the diseases model

Models accurately map the relationship between morality rates and types of diseases.

Implications of an ageing population:

Biggest burden for younger people as it is very costly and a long term investment with no quick solution. over 23% of people over 60 has a disease, 15% has malignant cancer and 30% have cvd

What is the input-output model

A farming system is made up of inputs, processes and output

farming inputs

Farming inputs: things needed to build the farm and produce food e.g. a tractor, machinery, animals, seeds, fertiliser, etc.

Farming process

Farming process: activities that happen for the farm to produce the food for example, milking cows, cutting silage, feeding calves, etc.

Farming output

Things farmers produce and sells for profit. Some outputs are also inputs for example silage.

• Strengths to the input output farming model

Logical approach, consistent and inform predictions, relative sustainabillity

Photosynthesis efficiency:

plant’s ability to convert light energy to chemical energy (ATP). Defined as the ratio of of the amount of light energy absorbed by the plant

• EER Energy Efficiency:

compares how much energy you get with the amount of energy you put in.

• Water footprint:

measures how much water you used to develop plant

Climate change and agricultural production:

For example, droughts = less crop yields ultimately increasing food prices and availability

Environmental Impacts and Food Choices

Concepts such as carbon footprint and water footprint and religion

Globalisation and changes of diet

exposure to a monogenised diet due to the rise of fast food

Religious Beliefs and Diets

hindus are vegetarian based on the concept of ahimsa—non-violence and compassion towards all beings

Income and Access

food deserts and affordabillity

•Relocation diffusion:

  Diseases leaves the areas where it originated and moves to new areas occurs when the carrier of a disease moves into another area.

•Expansion Diffusion: 

This occurs when the expanding disease has a source and diffuses outwards into new areas. In this expansion process, the disease often intensifies, in the originating region, but new areas are also occupied by the disease in subsequent time periods.

•Combined Relocation and Expansion:

 This type of disease diffusion combines the two processes of expansion and relocation.

•Contagious Diffusion: 

This is the spread of an infectious disease through the direct contact of individuals with those infected. The process is strongly influenced by distance because nearby individuals or regions have a much higher probability of contact than remote individuals or regions.

•Network Diffusion: 

This occurs when a disease spreads via transportation and social networks.

•UN

Definition: Food assistance branch of the UN (world’s largest organisation) – aims to provide food assistance globally. Role (4 categories): manage food emergencies, support food security & nutrition, promote self-sufficiency in food security, reduce undernutrition and intergenerational cycle of hunger

•un success story

Success: provided food assistance to 90mil people per year in 83 countries provided 15 million school meals in 2020; in June 2020 raised $4.3US billion for 82 countries facing food insecurity such as Yemen and South Sudan

•FAO, food and agriculture organisation

Definition: Specialised agency which leads international efforts to defeat hunger, food security and malnutrition, to be a neutral forum where nations can meet to discuss policies relating to food and agriculture; works with countries frameworks and constitutions to promote the right to food.

•fao success story

Success stories: Zambia – agriculture based economy, works to ensure self-sufficiency as a stepping stone for poor communities. Worked with the GOVT to launch Conservation Scaling Agriculture Up Project in 2013 – increased productivity in 31 districts, benefiting over 200k farmers (40% were women)

•WHO

Definition: is a global organisation which promotes health, keeps the world safe and serves the vulnerable o provide leadership on health matters, facilitate partnerships, set standards and norms relating to health and monitor implementation, provide technical support in health, monitor global health and assess health trends.

•WHO success story

Success stories: malaria control program – distribution of insecticide treated bed nets, antimalarial drugs, indoor residual spray – led to significant reduction in malaria related morbidity and mortality in Kenya and Ghana

Limitations of the roles of international organisations (Disease & Food Security)

Resource constraints: UN FAO, WHO, WFP are dependent on govt funding. E.G in 2019 the UN received 72% of its revenue by Govts. WHO is funded by country members (% of GDP) and voluntary contributions.

Political Challenges: Relationships with GOVTs are key; differing national interest and political parties can hinder implementation of strategies.

Limited Enforcement Mechanisms: lack of strong enforcement, policies and frameworks are guidelines and dependent on country’s willingness to follow.

•Government Subsidy in Food Security

Subsidy defined as type of expenditure given by the govt for industries, groups or individuals Role: Govt provide subsides to provide self sufficiency, protect agricultural industries or address food securities Success: USA Supplementary Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) 41mil low income people afford nutritional diet Limitations of SNAP: stigma of using SNAP benefits, creates dependency on Govt Assistance, not always sufficient to meet needs of family

• limitations to government subsity

Success of role of governments is dependent on policial stability, political party and national interest

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LICs tend to have limited access to technology and money in addition to the political instability of interregional conflict (e.g Syria, Yemen, South Sudan).

• what is an ngo

Definition: An NGO is a non-profit organisation that operates independently of any govt. with a purpose to address a social or political issue

•ozharvest role

Role: to combat food security in Australia by rescuing surplus food and redistributing it to vulnerable communities

•ozharvest success story

Success Stories: collaborates with Indigenous organizations and leaders to develop culturally sensitive approaches to combating food insecurity in these communities.

•limtations on ngos (ozharvest)

Limitations: relies on donations, volunteers, and partnerships to carry out its activities; including financial limitations and fluctuations in food donations, affects the scale and consistency of OzHarvest's operations.

Medecins San Frontieres

Help treat outbreaks of diseases in isolated and untreated countries because of problems with low accessibility and lack of infrastructure.

•ngo msf success story

Success Stories: Uganda (2022): they have helped treat outbreaks of Ebola by establishing treatment centres and medical teams. They built a 39-bed medical centre and a 40-bed medical centre.

•ngo msf limitations

Limitations: Economic (dependent on donors), Access (In conflict zones, including areas affected by political instability, the MSF will face extreme hardships in reaching out to help.), Scale (efforts are highly localised).

•TNCs

Definition: Companies that operate in several countries are known as transnational corporations (TNCs)

• positive influence of tncs

Positive Influence: drive innovation in the food industry, introducing new projects and formats that align to food preferences and cultural norms. Led to the development of convenience foods, processed snacks and ready to eat meals.

• case study of nestle tnc

Nestlé acquired a range of snack brands to diversify its product portfolio. Kit Kat has flavours tailored to Japan cultural foods – highlighting innovation and the balance between homogenised and local foods.

•neg tnc

Negative Influence: Led to the promotion of poor consumption habits – high sugar, fats, salts – increased affordability and access to these products. = increased non-communicable and health related disease in Middle Income Countries – this had led to an increased in sugars, sodium and saturated fats in diets, also an increased in meat consumption. (examples: South Africa, Indonesia, Brazil).

•neg influence tnx

Ultra-processed food is an industrially formulated edible substance derived from natural food or synthesized from other organic compounds High income countries such as US and AUS have peaked in rates of consumption of ultra high processed foods

•Agribusiness

multinational entities that operate in various sectors of the food industry, including cultivation, processing, packaging, and distribution of food products. These corporations are characterised by their vast size, extensive market reach, and significant economic influence.

•pos influence of agribusinesses

Positive Influence: Impacted positively by enabling an increased range of diverse food products to be available on the market – e.g. new crop types and livestock breeds. horticulture invest in breeding programs to introduce apples with unique flavors, textures, and colors. = increased consumer choice in apples – Honeycrips, Gala, Fuji and Pink Lady

• Negative Influence of agribusinesses

Dominance of global agriculture supply chains reduces the presence of localised foods and diets which ultimately shapes consumption patterns in a unsustainable way (dependent on imported food). Homogenisation of cavendish bananas by agribusinesses (Dole Food Company) has resulted in the loss of cultivation and availability of indigenous and local banana species in many regions (Ecuador, Philippines & Costa Rica)

o

Homogenisation of cavendish bananas by agribusinesses (Dole Food Company) has resulted in the loss of cultivation and availability of indigenous and local banana species in many regions (Ecuador, Philippines & Costa Rica)

Solutions to food waste in HICs

• changing consumer expectations on produce and it’s beauty standards and reduce food rejection/waste by 30%

for example:

• the odd bunch at a national level in Australia in Woolworths

Solutions to food waste in LICs

• addressing inefficiencies, infrastructure and inappropriate handling of large foods

for example:

• rural india in the state of punjabi, instead of using manual harvesting with sickles (which led to increase in post harvest waste), the state adapted the use of modern combine harvesters and led to signficiantly reduced food

• hermatic bags in malawi to ensure grain stored grain did not have access to oxygen, killing pests and preventing fungi

why is food waste an issue in hics

high levels of consumerism and overproducing in the companies , 30% of food in hics end up as waste

why is food waste an issue in lics

lics do not have the proper infrastructure and resources to hygenically/properly handle food which results in 80% of its food being wasted before mass distribution

short term solutions for food security

increasing production, food aid solutions and investing in seeds and fertilisers or just give food supply and exporting bans

for example plumpy nut used in niger to treat severe acute malnutrition, its a peanut based paste with essential nutrients, and are nutritionally dense but it doesnt address the real problem of food security and only prolongs the inevitable consequences

or another example, one acre fund provides farmers with access to high quality seeds that are more resilient to pests and diseases on the other hand, encourages a homogenised global diet and tnc shit

medium term solutions for food security

free trade and trade liberalisation— referring to the removal or reduction of barriers and restrictions on the free exchange of goods and services between countries

pros:

• access to necessary crops and others which many not be able to be produced in the country

cons:

• homogenised diet

• global dependancy i.e. somalia

long term solutions

vitro meats and GMO also known as genetically made food

for example in singapore, you can find chicken salads made from the lab

pros:

• less waste (only make essential cuts for meats)

• more nutritious ( reduction in ebola and salmonella)

cons:

• social stigma (70% of gen z didnt want to eat)

• expensive and takes a long time to make

factors affecting the severity of famine, governance

where there is poor governance, populations are not protected and food scaracity increases. rampant corruption with the somali government has led to mismanagement of resources, diversion of aid and embezzlement of funds intended

factors affecting the severity of famine, media

media attention brings awareness of famines to the public and stresses the hazards, for major events this is first through new outlets however, shit like this doesnt really get coverage unless the UN has already declared famine

rainfall variantion and the affect of severity of famine

droughts more commonly results in famine which occur due to the lack of rain over an extended period of time and limited water availabillity, the longer and more severe the drought is

Gender roles related to food and health, food production

women are prepared in preparing food and rearing small livestock whilst men grow and harvest food crops, for example in SEA and Sub-Sahara Africa, 50% of food producing work is completed by women and Sudanese women use 90% of their time to spend on household food preperation

Gender roles related to food and health. access to credit and land tenure

in some countries women arent allowed to own property or manager their finances which limits their abillity to produce and acquire food.

while women are responsible for 60-80% of food production in LIC and MIC , they own less than 10% of their land

in Zambia, women make up about 70% of the agricultural labor force, yet they only own about 15% of the land. This means that even though they are the ones working the fields, planting, weeding, and harvesting, they do not have the security of knowing that they will benefit from the fruits of their labor in the long term.

Gender roles related to food and health, customs and cultures

patriarchal viewes and the caring role of women it is expected that wives chose to go without meals ahead of husbands and children, a harvard bangladesh study found that malnutrition is more prevelant in girls (14%) then boys (5%)

benefits of closing the gap in gender disparities regarding food security

• women who have 5 years of education live 40% longer in africa

• if women had same access to resources as men, they would increase yields by 20-30% raising total agricultural production by 2.5-4

gender roles and disaprities of health

women have less control over their body and are exposed to violence, coercion and harmful practices

gender gap in canada

physicians are more likely to reccomend total knee arthroplasty for men compared to women who presented with the similar levels of disabillity because typically it is percieved that men are more assertive and physical than women

gender health disparities, maternal care

careless neglect of maternal care provisions LICS resulted in high rates of maternal deaths. in chad, 1 in every 15 women will die due to complications in birth

reproductive rights of women

continued practice of female genital mutilation in 29 countries despite it being a highly repealed practice. also, abortion has been illegal in poland and limits the rights of women