Studied by 6 peopleWhat century did the enlightenment period come about?
18th century: 1700's
What are the two key features of the enlightenment?
Religion
Rational thinking
Human reason
Refers to being enabled to explain society and how it works. Moving from religion to rational thinking.
Human progress
Refers to the knowledge gained on how the world works in order to create a better world. E.g sciences helped to eradicate disease and social sciences help tackle poverty.
Empiricism
Knowledge based on reason
What occurred in the 19th century?
Sociologists aimed to create a Utopian society
Feminism
Believe society functions in order to benefit men at the expense of women. This is evident within our patriarchal society
Marxism
Society functions in order to benefit the ruling class at the expense of the subject class.
Postmodernists
Structures do not improve society, they accept it. Fragmentation etc, is inevitable.
Theory
An idea that attempts to provide explanation for something
Structural approaches overview
Macro view, modernist approach, top down deterministic approach, believe that in order to understand behaviour we have to understand the forces that shape it
Which theoretical approaches are structural?
Marxism, feminism and functionalism
Action approach overview
Micro view, bottom up anti-deterministic approach, understanding behaviour needs to be based on understanding of individual actions, free agents with free will
Postmodern approach over view
Argues that modernist theory is out dated, globalisation has fundamentally changed society, society is now an unstable saturated global village, which has a hyper reality which is fragmented and chaotic.
Functionalism: Durkheim
1858-1917
Marxism: Karl Marx
1818-1883
Neo-Marcism
1970's
Feminidm
First wave- 19th century. Second wave- 1960's onwards
Interactionism: Weber
1864-1920
Postmodernism
1970's onwards. Counter argument- late modernity
What kind of motivation do structural approaches possess?
Extrinsic motivation
How do functionalism, Marxism and feminism possess qualities of a modernist theory?
Believe we are able to gain true knowledge of society and thereby improve it.
What kind of motivation do action approaches believe individuals possess?
Intrinsic motivation
Are action theories voluntaristic?
Yes, as they note that we create and shape our lives, and in turn, society.
Why do Postmodernists believe that modernist theories are outdated?
As there are no more grand narratives, they are mere meta-narratives and plural truths. There is no objective reality which can be measured
Do positivists believe that sociology can be studied scientifically?
Yes. They believe that it has a clear cut predictable structure, which is measurable allowing for the identification of social facts and empirical knowledge.
What do positivism value?
Reliability- standardised info which can be replicated,
representativeness- large scale accounting for a typical cross section,
Cause and effect relationships
Practical factors able to impact research
Research opportunity,
Time and money,
Access, funding body, skills and characteristics of the researcher. (Largest funding body=gov. Quantitative method- stats)
Do interpretivists believe that sociology can be studied scientifically?
No. society is far too complex and should not be modelled on the natural sciences.
What do interpretivists value?
ValidityWhat was the purpose of the enlightenment?
What is science?
A set of principles that tell us how to produce valid knowledge. It then aims to base laws and theories on objective facts gained through observing phenomena.
Objectivity
Where the research does not involve opinions, or bias or prejudice.
What do positivists believe regarding reality?
They believe reality exists outside and independently of the human mind and that a structure is evident, where people are told what to do via external forces.
What is society according to positivism
An objective factual reality that is made up of social facts (patterns) and these things dictate actions
What are social facts according to LUKES?
Notes that they are social forces found within the structures of society, they have 3 key features:
They are external to individuals
They constrain individuals shaping their behaviour
They are greater than the individual, existing in a different level.
What are the 3 features of social facts according to LUKES?
They are external to individuals,
They constrain individuals shaping their behaviour,
They are greater than individuals, existing on a different level
What social facts did DURKHEIM use in his comparative method experiment?
Social integration, and moral regulation.
Is reality patterned according to Positivism?
Reality is not random or chaotic, it is patterned. Real laws are discoverable and these laws will explain patterns
Inductive reasoning
Involves accumulating data about the world via careful observation and measurement. As knowledge increases, patterns can be identified.
A03 of Inductive reasoning: POPPER
Fallacy of induction
What patterns did DURKHEIM observe in his observation of suicide rates?
Suicide rates remained constant over time, when rates changes this coincided with other changes, fell during war time, rose during economic crisis, different societies rates are different, Lower rates for Catholics than protestants
From what did DURKHEIM develop the fourfold typology?
From his observations of suicide rates
What does DURKHEIM claim to have established in his fourfold typology?
A truth, where he then develops a general law
Verificationism
Inductive reasoning claiming to verify a theory
A03 of verificationism: POPPER:
Falsificationism
What do interpretivists believe about social actors
They are far too complex to be studied scientifically
Which theory takes an interpretivist approach?
Feminism and interactionism
What is the difference between sociology and the natural sciences?
NS study matter which has no consciousness. Behaviour can be explained in relation to external stimulus- it cannot make choices about its behaviour.
Sociology studies people who are conscious. To understand people meanings must be understood
Mead
FREE WILL
Verstehen
Idea of stepping into somebody else's shoes. Identified by WEBER- using his perspective it requires subjective understanding which draws on people's opinions
What are interpretivist methods, and how could they be argued to achieve verstehen?
Covert observations, unstructured interviews: allows for a rapport,
Documents(2ndary) open questionnaires. Each tries to get understanding of social actors meanings and life worlds
Interactionism: GLASER AND STRAUSS
argue that a positivist approach risks imposing our view of what's important rather than the actors and so distorts reality. Should not begin with a hypothesis, bottom up approach-grounded theory. Should observe ideas then produce testable hypothesis
Interactionism: DOUGLAS
challenged the validity of the official statistics an aimed to uncover meanings which can only be done using qualitative approaches
Ethnomethodology: GARFINKEL
Society is not a real thing it exists in our minds, and so cannot be measured to identify cause and effect. People are not governed by external forces and therefore there is no possibility of cause and effect relationships
ATKINSON: Ethnomethodology
Notes that meanings cannot be uncovered as the person (died) cannot justify it.
Postmodern beliefs
No longer a unifying truth that all believe in, sociology cannot be value free, science is a meta narrative, plural truths, there is no objective reality waiting to be measured
What is the postmodern perspective on science?
Just another meta narrative, undesirable and does not always lead to progress, dangerous and claims a monopoly of the truth, does not always bring benefits and is an unsuitable method for SOC. example- Soviet Union, communism, MOT
Why does feminism differ to the other structural theories?
Opposed completely to positivism as they believe it is patriarchal and unable to capture the reality of a woman's experience
What are the two questions answered by POPPER in regards to science?
What makes scientific knowledge unique?
Why has scientific knowledge grown so much in the past few centuries?
The fallacy of induction
Induction is the process of moving from the observation of particular instances of something to arrive a a general statement or law. POPPER noted we can't prove a theory true by simply producing further observation to verify it
Falsificationism: POPPER
Proving something wrong. Science is so unique it sets to falsify ideas. Cannot be disproved, they have to be accepted as the best version of the truth at that time.
Unscientific research being unable to be falsified: POPPER
Example- MARXISM: Marx noted that a revolution would occur. However they note this has not yet happened due to being indoctrinated into a false class consciousness. Cannot be proved wrong and so is untestable
KUHN
Historian of science, radically different view to POPPER regarding what makes science unique
The paradigm: KUHN
A paradigm provides a framework of assumptions, principles, methods and techniques within which members of the scientific community work
Normal science: KUHN
KUHN notes that in this type, scientists engage in puzzle solving. KUHN sees this aspect of puzzle solving within a paradigm as the unique feature of science
Scientific revolutions: KUHN
Occasionally scientists will uncover findings that contradict the paradigm and as anomalies build up this leads to a period crisis marking the start of a scientific revolution as rival paradigms are incommensurable
What is different about KUHNs findings compared to POPPER
Science is not characterised by openness or originality, normal science scientists are conformists who unquestioningly accept key ideas of the paradigm
Implications for sociology as a science
Sociology is pre-scientific and pre paradigmatic. Does not operate within a paradigm as there are few shared ideas but rather competing perspectives
Midwifery
Note
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