exam apwh

A set of vocabulary flashcards based on historical developments and interconnections from 1200 to 1750, covering major empires, trade networks, and cultural exchanges.

Song China

A major Chinese dynasty known for its advancements in technology, culture, and economic growth between 960 and 1279.

Confucianism

A philosophical and ethical system based on the teachings of Confucius, emphasizing morality, social relationships, and justice.

Abbasid Caliphate

An Islamic empire that ruled from 750 to 1258, known for its cultural, economic, and intellectual achievements during the Islamic Golden Age.

Silk Road

An ancient trade route that connected the East and West, facilitating not only trade in silk but also culture, religion, and technology.

Grand Canal

A large-scale waterway system in China that greatly enhanced trade and transportation during the Sui and Song dynasties.

Mongol Empire

A vast empire established by Genghis Khan in the 13th century, known for its military conquests and for facilitating trade and cultural exchanges across Eurasia.

Sufi missionaries

Islamic mystics who spread Islam through personal example and spiritual appeal, often interacting with local cultures.

Columbian Exchange

The transfer of goods, crops, and populations between the Old World and the New World following Columbus's voyages in the late 15th century.

Lateen sail

A triangular sail used to enable ships to maneuver better against the wind, significant in maritime exploration of the 15th century.

Mercantilism

An economic theory that emphasizes the importance of accumulating wealth, particularly gold and silver, for national strength and power.

Encomienda system

A labor system that rewarded Spanish colonists with the labor of indigenous people, leading to exploitation and significant demographic changes.

Hacienda

Large estates in Spanish colonies that were established for agriculture and cattle ranching, often reliant on forced indigenous labor.

Joint-stock company

A business entity where shares are owned by multiple investors, crucial for funding exploration and colonial ventures during the Age of Discovery.

Casta system

A racial hierarchy established in colonial Latin America categorizing individuals based on their race and ethnicity.

Buddhism

A religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) that emphasizes enlightenment and the cessation of suffering, having significant cultural impacts in Asia.

crusades

a series of religious wars launched by Western European Christians to regain control of Jerusalem and other holy lands from Muslim rule. Called for by Pope Urban II, they were motivated by religious devotion as well as political and economic goals. The Crusades increased trade, cultural exchange, and long-term religious conflict.

reconquista

A centuries-long campaign (c. 700–1492) by Christian kingdoms in Iberia to reclaim territory from Muslim rulers, ending with the capture of Granada and increasing Christian political and religious dominance.

middle passage

The transatlantic voyage that forcibly transported enslaved Africans to the Americas, marked by brutal conditions and high mortality, and central to the Atlantic slave trade.

marathas

A powerful Hindu warrior confederation in western India that challenged Mughal authority in the 17th–18th centuries and contributed to the decline of the Mughal Empire.

creoles

People of European descent born in the Americas who often held wealth and land but were politically subordinate to European-born elites, leading to tensions in colonial societies.

treaty of tordesillas

A 1494 agreement between Spain and Portugal that divided newly discovered lands outside Europe, shaping patterns of colonization in the Americas.

mulatto

A colonial racial category referring to people of mixed African and European ancestry, reflecting the caste-based social hierarchies of colonial Latin America.

ashanti (asante)

A powerful West African empire that controlled regional trade, including gold and enslaved people, through military strength and centralized governance.

commercial revolution

A period of expanded global trade marked by capitalism, joint-stock companies, and banking innovations that increased European wealth.

meritocracy

A system in which political power or status is earned through ability and achievement rather than birth, exemplified by China’s civil service examination system.This system promotes the idea that individuals can advance based on their skills and merits, leading to a more competitive society.

scholar-gentry

The educated elite in China who held civil service positions and were selected through rigorous examinations, combining scholarly knowledge with governance.

Ferdinand Magellan

A Spanish explorer known for leading the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe, proving that the earth is round and connected by oceans.

bureacracy

plantocracy

A wealthy elite class in the Caribbean, particularly in the British West Indies, that owned and controlled plantations and relied on enslaved labor for economic prosperity.

manumission

The act of freeing an enslaved person, often through legal means or as a reward for service.

fronde

A series of civil wars in France (1648-1653) characterized by conflict between the crown and noble factions, aimed at limiting royal power.

dutch east India company

A trading company established in 1602, granted a monopoly on Dutch trade with Asia, instrumental in the spice trade and colonial expansion.

dutch West India company

A trading company established in 1621, focused on the Americas and Africa, primarily engaged in the sugar trade and the slave trade.

conquistadors

Spanish explorers and soldiers who conquered regions in the Americas during the 16th century, seeking wealth and glory.

capitalism

An economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit, with minimal government intervention.

little ice age

A period of cooler temperatures from the 14th to the mid-19th century, impacting agriculture and economies in the Northern Hemisphere.

bourgeisie

The social class that owns the means of production in a capitalist society, often associated with the middle class. They played a key role in the economic development during the Industrial Revolution.

gentry

A social class that comprised landowners who were below the nobility in wealth and social status, often involved in local governance and agriculture. maroons

maroons

escaped slaves who formed independent communities in the Americas and the Caribbean.

royal African company

A chartered company established in the 17th century to carry out trade on behalf of England, particularly in the slave trade and commodities from Africa.

atlantic circuit

The network of trade routes that connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas, primarily for the exchange of enslaved people, sugar, and other goods during the 16th to 19th centuries.

(British) east India company

A British trading corporation formed in the 17th century to conduct trade in the East Indies, particularly in spices and later in tea, silk, and cotton.

robert clive

A British military officer and the chief architect of British expansion in India during the 18th century, known for his role in the establishment of British control over the Bengal region.

deforestaion

The large-scale removal of forests and trees, often resulting in damage to the quality of the land. It can lead to loss of biodiversity, disruption of water cycles, and contributes to climate change.

overgrazing

The practice of allowing livestock to graze excessively on land, leading to vegetation loss, soil degradation, and desertification.

cossack revolts

The series of uprisings by the Cossacks in Russia, particularly in the 17th and 18th centuries, against serfdom and oppressive policies, aimed at gaining autonomy and land rights.

carrack

A type of sailing ship developed in the 15th century, commonly used by European explorers for long voyages across oceans.

fluyt

A Dutch type of sailing vessel designed for trade, known for its large capacity and efficiency in cargo transport during the late 16th and 17th centuries.

centralization

The process of consolidating power and authority in a central government, often leading to the reduction of local autonomy and the standardization of laws and policies within a state.

middle passage

The forced voyage of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas, characterized by brutal conditions and high mortality rates.

ana nzinga

A prominent African queen of the Ndongo and Matamba kingdoms in Angola, known for her resistance against Portuguese colonization in the 17th century.

ndongo

An African kingdom in present-day Angola, known for its resistance to Portuguese colonial rule led by Queen Ana Nzinga.

matamba

An African kingdom in present-day Angola, historically allied with Ndongo and known for its resistance against Portuguese colonization.

batavia

The capital of the Dutch East Indies, established in the 17th century, which became a major trading hub and a center of colonial administration in Southeast Asia.

arawak

A group of indigenous peoples of the Caribbean and parts of South America known for their agriculture and pottery. They were one of the first indigenous groups encountered by European explorers.

spanish

explorers who conquered vast territories in the Americas and established systems of colonization, often involving the exploitation of indigenous populations.

portuguese

explorers who played a key role in the Age of Exploration, establishing sea routes to India and Brazil, and were significant in the colonization and trade in Africa and Asia.

vasco da gama

Portuguese explorer who was the first to reach India by sea, linking Europe and Asia for trade and establishing a significant maritime empire.

zheng he

Chinese mariner and explorer who led naval expeditions to Southeast Asia, South Asia, and East Africa during the early 15th century, promoting trade and diplomacy.

mestizos

People of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry in Latin America.

oman

A country located on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, known for its maritime history and trade networks.

puritans

A group of English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to reform the Church of England and promote a stricter religious observance.

pilgrims

A group of English settlers who left England seeking religious freedom and established the Plymouth Colony in 1620.

zheng he

A Chinese explorer and admiral during the Ming Dynasty, known for his extensive maritime expeditions in the early 15th century.

bartolomeu dias

A Portuguese explorer who was the first European to sail around the southern tip of Africa, reaching the Cape of Good Hope in 1488.

henry the navigator

A Portuguese prince who played a significant role in the early days of the Portuguese Empire and the Age of Discoveries. He was instrumental in the development of maritime exploration and navigation, setting up a school for navigators.

potosi

A major colonial city in present-day Bolivia, renowned for its vast silver mines, notably the Cerro Rico. It became a key site for Spanish colonial wealth in the 16th century.

daimyo

Powerful feudal lords in Japan who ruled over their own domains and held significant political and military power during the Sengoku period.

hernan cortez

Spanish conquistador known for leading the expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire. He claimed Mexico for Spain and sought riches and land.

swahili

Coastal inhabitants of East Africa known for their trading networks and Bantu language influence, predominantly reflecting Islamic culture.

batavia

A historical city in Indonesia, formerly the capital of the Dutch East Indies, significant for trade and colonial administration.

gujaratis

Ethnic group from the Indian state of Gujarat, known for their entrepreneurial spirit and extensive trading connections in East Africa and beyond.

javanese

Ethnic group from the island of Java in Indonesia, known for rich cultural heritage and significant agricultural contributions.

new france

A policy of avoiding political or military involvement with other countries, often to focus on domestic issues and economic self-sufficiency.

indentured servants

Laborers contracted to work for a fixed term, typically in exchange for passage to a new land, and often subjected to harsh conditions.

coerced labor

Labor obtained through force or threats, often lacking consent and involving exploitation.

colonization

The process of establishing control over foreign territories and populations, typically involving settlement and exploitation of resources.

plantation economy

A system of agricultural production that relies on large-scale farms (plantations) growing cash crops, often dependent on slave or coerced labor.

Incan mit’a

A labor system used by the Incas, requiring citizens to provide different forms of labor as a form of tribute to the state, often for public works and agriculture.

dehli sultanate

A historical Muslim kingdom in India that ruled from the 13th to the 16th centuries, known for its significant cultural and architectural contributions.

Acheh Sultanate

A Muslim sultanate located on the northern tip of Sumatra, Indonesia, known for its trade and resistance against colonial powers during the 16th to 20th centuries.