collecting data

Location of the study

indicate site of the study and reasons for its selection

Sampling design

have a clear picture of the population from which the sample or study participants will be drawn, including unit of analysis or unit of observation – may be individuals, households, groups, institutions; and sample size calculation

Operational definition

a definition of a variable in terms of the actual procedures

used by the researcher to measure and/or manipulate it (

Data collection procedures

specification and description of instruments, specification of information to be collected, validation of instrument, pre-testing, administration of instrument

n

sample

N

population

Random

all members of N have an equal chance of selection; also called as

simple random sampling (SRS)

Stage/Multi-stage sampling

randomly select a group, then take sample

Cluster

select a natural group to sample from

Stratified

identify strata and sample accordingly

Systematic

e.g. very fourth person but starting at a random point

Opportunity

sample a convenient group

Construct

a concept inferred from observed phenomena

Constitutively defined

one that is defined by referring to other constructs

Operationally defined

one is defined by specifying the activities used to measure or manipulate

Variable

a quantitative expression of the construct; a characteristics of the study

subjects which is mentioned in the framework/causal model; e.g.: iron status of

pregnant women.

Independent variable

the variable that affects another variable from which the prediction is being made; variable presumed to cause, influence, or stimulate the outcome; (exposure); being change in an experiment.

Dependent variable

the variable being affected by the independent variable or the variable being predicted; refers to the output, the outcome or the response variable; (disease); outcome being observed/measure.

Control Variable

a variable which by itself produce changes that may

be mistaken to be the effect of the independent variable hence should be

controlled or held constant or randomized so that effects are neutralized,

cancelled out or equated for all conditions

Confounding variables

refers to the mixing of the effect of the exposure under study on the disease with that of a third (extraneous) factor

Indicator

measurement which will be collected during the research that is

assumed to reflect the variable, e.g. Serum Ferritin concentration

Validity

Measure what we assume to measure

Feasibility

including cost, equipment and methodology

Accuracy

degree to which a variable actually represents what it is supposed to represent

Precision

degree to which a variable has nearly the same value when measured several times

Systematic Error

results from flaws either in the method of selection of study

participants or in the procedures for gathering relevant exposure and/or disease

information (“spurious” association).

Ecologic Fallacy

is the association observed between variables on an

aggregate level does not necessarily represent the association that exists at an

individual level

Hawthorne Effect

refers to a phenomenon which is thought to occur when

people observed during a research study temporarily change their behavior or

performance

Placebo Effect

occurs when a person believes that he or she is receiving real

treatment and reports an improvement in his or her condition.

Internal validity

the extent to which the investigator is able to control the different biases that may affect the study, and in the end measures what he really intends to measure

External Validity

The extent to which the investigator is able to generalize the results of the

study - random errors addressed (Type I and Type II errors)

Random Error

defined as the divergence, due to chance alone, of an observation on a sample from the true population value, leading to lack of precision in the measurement of an association

Instrumentation

is a process of selecting or developing measuring devices and

methods appropriate to a given evaluation problem.

measure

cannot be valid unless it is reliable; but a measure can be reliable without

being valid.

focus group

could be defined as a group of interacting individuals having some common interest or characteristics, brought together by a moderator, who uses the group and As interaction way to gain information about a specific or focused issue.

Participant observation

is one type of data collection method typically done in the qualitative

research paradigm

Data Analysis

is the process of converting raw data to information. Preliminary

processes include editing and coding of responses.

Correlation coefficient

It quantifies the extent to which there is a linear relationship between exposure and disease (whether for every unit of change in level of exposure, the disease frequency changes proportionately.

Relative risk

estimates the magnitude of the association between exposure and

disease; indicates the likelihood of developing the disease in the exposed group

relative to those who are not exposed.

Fabrication

making up data or results

Falsification

manipulating research materials, equipment or processes or changing or omitting data or results such that the research is not accurately represented in the research record

Plagiarism

the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results or words

without giving appropriate credit or without proper permission

Non-maleficence

means do no harm or do not Putt: risk of harm to anybody

Beneficence

is "to do good", in benefit of others, and to prevent or remove harm or

risk of harm, do good or provide a benefit

Respect for person

is the display of regard for the worth of people, including oneself, regardless of who they are and what they have done, regardless of race, color, age, past history, socioeconomic, political or cultural status.

Justice

relates to the rightness of people's interactions and relationships. It is a

person's obligation to give or at least not deprive another what is her/ his due

(entitlement).

Informed Consent Form

is the translation of the study protocol from scientific language into lay person - local lay language so that they will understand what is the research and what are expected of them should they be part of the research study.