psych notes 3 and 4

Experiment

Research requiring a controlled independent variable to establish causality.

Descriptive research

Observing real-world conditions without manipulating variables.

Quasi-experiment

Research where the researcher lacks control over some component of the independent variable (e.g., gender).

Cross-sectional design

Testing different age groups at the same time.

Longitudinal design

Following the same group of participants across multiple time periods.

Field study

Collecting data by observing subjects in their natural environment.

Case study

Examining a small number or unique individual to understand a rare psychological concept.

Between-subjects design

Exposing participants to only one level of the independent variable.

Within-subjects design

Exposing one participant to multiple levels, comparing them to themselves.

Reliability

Getting the same score across repeated testing with the same survey or experiment.

Internal validity

How much control a researcher has over their study.

External validity

How similar a study is to the real world.

WEIRD populations

Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic societies.

Descriptive statistics

Statistics that describe data, such as mean, median, and mode.

Inferential statistics

Statistics that determine if there are significant differences between groups (e.g., t-test, f-stat).

Positive correlation

Relationship where variables move together in the same direction.

Confound / Third variable

An unmeasured third variable driving the relationship between two variables.

Informed consent

Ensuring participants know potential risks prior to participating.

Beneficence & Deception

Deception requires benefits to outweigh costs, and participants cannot be deceived about dangers.

Debriefing

Explaining the study's purpose and revealing any deception after participation.

Fabrication

Completely making up data in research misconduct.

Hawthorne effect

People behaving differently when they are aware they are being observed.

Social desirability bias

Answering questions in a way that appeals to others to avoid rejection.

Teratogens

Potentially dangerous substances a fetus is exposed to that impact development (e.g., alcohol).

Critical period

A specific time window where a trait must develop or it never will.

Sensitive period

A time window when a trait develops easier, but can still develop later (e.g., language).

Habituation

A baby stopping response to old, familiar stimuli due to boredom.

Infantile amnesia

Inability to remember events prior to age 3-5 due to rapid brain growth.

Sensorimotor stage

Piaget's stage from birth to 2 years where world is understood through senses and physical interaction.

Object permanence

Understanding that an object still exists even when it cannot be seen.

Preoperational stage

Piaget's stage from 2 to 7 featuring symbolic thought and egocentrism.

Concrete operational stage

Piaget's stage from 7 to 11 where children can mentally manipulate symbolic concepts and master conservation.

Formal operational stage

Piaget's stage from age 12+ enabling abstract and hypothetical reasoning.

Assimilation

Fitting new experiences into current understanding of the world.

Accommodation

Changing current understanding of the world based on new experiences.

Scaffolding

Temporary support provided by an older individual that decreases as competence increases.

Private speech

Toddlers talking out loud to themselves before developing an internal monologue.

Theory of mind

A child's understanding that other people have different thoughts, perspectives, and mental states.

Cephalacaudal trend

Motor development control starting from the head/neck and moving downward.

Proximodistal trend

Motor development control starting from the trunk/center and moving outward.

Social referencing

A child looking back to a caregiver to understand how to deal with a new experience.

Marshmallow experiment (Mischel)

Study on self-regulation and delay of gratification predicting future life success.

Insecure-avoidant attachment

Infant showing little distress on separation and ignoring/avoiding the caregiver upon reunion.

Insecure-resistant attachment

Infant showing distress and inability to be comforted by the caregiver upon reunion.

Insecure-disorganized attachment

Infant displaying odd, conflicted, or fearful behaviors during reunion in the strange situation.

Authoritative parenting

Parenting style that is both demanding and responsive, featuring clear rules and communicative interaction.

Authoritarian parenting

Parenting style that is demanding and unresponsive, with strict rules and little warmth.

Permissive parenting

Parenting style that is undemanding and responsive, with few expectations and high warmth.

Uninvolved parenting

Parenting style that is both undemanding and unresponsive, offering little discipline or attention.