Islamic Studies iGCSE Edexcel: Section B (The key, beliefs, practices and features of the early Muslim community founded by the Prophet)

2.1a) the meaning and importance of belief in the oneness of Allah (Tawhid)

- It is the main point in Shahdah, and what sets Islam apart from other religions such as Chrisitianity.

- Avoiding shirk.

- We should make decisions based on our belief in the oneness of Allah

- Tawhid gives us a direction and a purpose in life.

- Not comparing anybody to Allah

- Brings us closer to Allah by recognising his power, and as an Ummah united in this faith.

- Encourages us to do good and leave evil for the sake of our Creator.

2.1bi) the meaning and importance of the attributes of Allah, including his Omnipotence

- Omnipotence: The quality of having very great power and control

- Allows us to leave us trust in Allah even when things go against what we want to happen, and allow Him to take control of our fates.

2.1bii) the meaning and importance of the attributes of Allah, including Allah as Creator

- Creator: The Creator of all humans, jinns, angels, the heavens and the Earth. The whole universe.

- Prevents us from being too obsessed with worldly desires and being too arrogant

- Surah Alaq was the first surah to be revealed, and it was about Allah being the Creator of everything that shows the importance of His attribute as Creator.

2.1biii) the meaning and importance of the attributes of Allah, including Allah as merciful and just

- Merciful: being forgiving when given sincere repentence.

- Just: being fair in all rulings.

- Encourages us to ask for forgiveness, and shows the love that Allah has towards His creation.

- A reminder to Muslims that on the Day of Judgement and/or throughout their lives, Allah will always give them justice and bring those who do evil to fair punishment, no matter the size of the crime

- "Not ˹even˺ an atom's weight is hidden from Him in the heavens or the earth; nor anything smaller or larger than that, but is ˹written˺ in a perfect Record."

2.1c) the meaning and importance of the teaching about shirk and nifaq (hypocrisy)

- Shirk: believing in gods besides Allah or connecting him to other entities or people.

- Nifaq: hypocrisy, pretending to be a believer, without sincere Tawhid.

- The greatest sin, which cannot be forgiven - the intensity of it is exemplified as Allah is forgiving and merciful with everything but this.

- Hypocrisy has quite large consequences as well.

2.1d) the characteristics of Allah as shown in the Qur'an

- Surah Fatiha is known to be like a summary of the Quran, hence it is the first surah.

- It talks about Allah as Most Compassionate, Most Merciful, Lord of all worlds, Master of The Day of Judgement

- Shows us Allah's immense power, and how only He guides whom He wills and whoever sincerely asks for guidance.

- Shows Allah's mercy and love.

2.2a) the nature and importance of prophethood for Muslims

- They all brought the message of Tawheed to all Abrahamic religions.

- The hardships the previous prophets persevered are a guide for Muslims to show them to have trust in Allah's plan.

2.2b) what the roles of prophets teach Muslims

- The punishments of their people show Muslims that Allah's wrath is to be feared.

- They teach perseverence, tawakkul, and tawheed.

- it represents how Allah communicates His guidance to humanity, helping people understand how to live good, meaningful lives

- They also teach Muslims about spiritual leadership, character building, and the importance of spreading justice and mercy, as well as how to apply God's guidance in everyday life through their example and teachings

2.2ci) the lives of prophets before Muhammad (pbuh), Adam (as)

- First prophet

- We can learn about Iblis and his arrogance and stubbornness to not bow to Allah for creating Adam (as).

- He was expelled from Heaven due to eating from a tree that Allah had forbade him to eat from.

- He asked for forgiveness immediately after, showing Muslims how to act after committing a sin.

2.2cii) the lives of prophets before Muhammad (pbuh), Ibrahim (as)

- Everyone around him was an idol-worshipper but he refused.

- He destroyed the idols, and he asked the angry disbelievers to ask their idols who destroyed them. Of course, they could not answer.

- When threatened with death by fire for his beliefs, Ibrahim (AS) showed complete trust in Allah, and Allah miraculously saved him from the flames, proving that true faith brings divine help and protection

- Additionally, Ibrahim (AS) was ready to sacrifice his son Ismail (with Ismail's consent), showing his devotion to Allah.

- This shows Muslims that nothing is more sacred and important for Muslims than our belief in Him. It encourages us to persevere with our faith in Allah, even if that means leaving the comfort of our homes.

- He was given the Suhuf, or Scrolls of Abraham, which are now believed to be lost.

2.2ciii) the lives of prophets before Muhammad (pbuh), Isma'il (as)

- left with his mother Hajar in the desert as a baby, but he and his mother trusted Allah completely, and the miraculous spring of Zamzam appeared to save them.

- helped his father Ibrahim (AS) build the Kaaba in Makkah, showing obedience, teamwork, and the importance of worshipping Allah alone.

- When his father told him about Allah's command to sacrifice him, Isma'il (AS) bravely agreed, showing total submission and trust in Allah's plan.

- Isma'il (AS) grew up to be a prophet, teaching his people to pray, give charity, and follow Allah's guidance, and he was known for keeping his promises and being patient and hardworking.

- His life teaches Muslims to trust Allah in hardship, be patient, honor family ties, and always fulfill their promises, making him a role model for faith and character

2.2civ) the lives of prophets before Muhammad (pbuh), Musa (as)

- Musa (AS) was born at a time when Pharaoh was killing all male babies, because he had a vision he would be overthrown by one.

- his mother placed him in a basket on the Nile to save him, and he was found and raised by Pharaoh's wife, Asiya. She had had tawakkul, and was reunited with Musa (as) as his wet nurse - "Tie it [your camel] and rely upon Allah."

- As an adult, he accidentally killed an Egyptian while defending an Israelite, then fled Egypt and lived in Midian, where he married and worked as a shepherd - this is important as even the Prophet (pbuh) was a shepherd.

- Allah spoke to Musa (AS) at the burning bush, chose him as a prophet, and commanded him to return to Egypt to free the Israelites.

- Even though Musa (as) had a stutter, he made a dua, and Allah helped him.

- With his brother Harun (AS), Musa (AS) confronted Pharaoh, and—with Allah's help—turned his staff into a snake and when pulled out a shiny white hand.

- He led his people to freedom by parting the Red Sea, escaping Pharaoh's army.

- Musa (AS) guided the Israelites, received the Torah, and taught them to worship Allah alone, showing patience and leadership even when his people made mistakes, like worshipping the golden calf.

- His life teaches Muslims about trusting Allah, standing up against injustice, seeking forgiveness after mistakes, and the importance of patience, courage, and steadfast faith.

- It also shows that, "Allah does not burden any human being with a responsibility heavier than he can bear.""

2.2cv) the lives of prophets before Muhammad (pbuh), Dawud (as)

- Dawud (AS) was a young shepherd who became famous for defeating the giant warrior Jalut (Goliath), showing great tawakkul and courage when others were afraid

- After this victory, he was loved by his people and eventually became both a prophet and a king, the first to hold both roles at the same time, ruling the Children of Israel with justice and wisdom for forty years.

- Allah revealed the holy book Zabur (Psalms) to Dawud (AS), and he was known for his beautiful voice, devotion in worship, and constant praise of Allah

- Dawud (AS) was a fair judge who listened to people's disputes and ruled with justice, but when he once made a mistake by judging only one side of the story, he repented sincerely and Allah forgave him.

- His life teaches Muslims about bravery, gratitude, sincere worship, repentance after mistakes, and the importance of ruling or acting with fairness and justice, even when having great power.

2.2cvi) the lives of prophets before Muhammad (pbuh), Isa (as)

- He (as) was born to the virgin Maryam (ra) - Jibraeel told her to rest under a palm tree, and there she found dates by lightly shaking the tree and water underneath the ground.

- Once she gave birth, the people of her village accused her of adultery. This was Isa's first miracle from Allah - he spoke to the people as a baby, and told them he was a prophet.

- He received the Injeel (Gospel) and performed miracles such as healing the sick and raising the dead, all by the will of Allah

- He challenged the corrupt practices of some religious leaders of his time and prophesied the coming of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him).

- Allah saved him from being crucified by raising him up to heaven.

- Isa (AS) is one of the greatest prophets in Islam, and he will return before the Day of Judgment to restore justice and defeat Dajjal (anti-christ)

- His life teaches Muslims about faith in Allah, patience in hardship, kindness, and the importance of calling people to truth and righteousness.

2.3ai) the nature of the Islamic holy books, specifically, Tawrat (Torah - Judaism)

- It was revealed to Prophet Musa (as)

- It was revealed to the Children of Isr'aeel

- the original Tawrat taught the oneness of God and provided moral and legal teachings, but over time, its message was altered or partially lost due to human changes and misinterpretations

2.3aii) the nature of the Islamic holy books, specifically, Zabur (Psalms - Christianity)

- It was revealed to Prophet Dawud (as)

- The Zabur contains themes of divine justice, righteousness, and the promise that "the land is inherited by My righteous servants," reflecting similar messages found in the biblical Psalms.

- the Israelites were given guidance and blessings, but when they repeatedly disobeyed and transgressed, Allah's punishment came upon them.

2.3aiii) the nature of the Islamic holy books, specifically, Injeel (Gospel - Christianity)

- It was revealed to Prophet Isa (AS)

- Revealed to the Children of Isr'aeel

- The Injeel emphasized love, mercy, humility, and spiritual renewal, calling people back to true worship of Allah.

2.3aii) the nature of the Islamic holy books, specifically, Scrolls of Abraham (Lost)

- They were revealed by Allah to Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham, AS)

- Ibrahim (AS) lived in a society dominated by idol-worship, injustice, and moral corruption. His mission was to call people to the worship of one God.

- The Scrolls emphasized belief in one God, the afterlife, prayer, remembrance of Allah, and purification of the soul from evil and ego. They also encouraged virtue, justice, and self-improvement.

- The Scrolls have now been lost.

2.3aii) the nature of the Islamic holy books [ALL BOOKS]

- As societies changed or strayed from the original teachings, Allah sent new prophets and revelations to renew guidance.

- Each scripture built on the previous, addressing the needs of its time while maintaining the core message of Tawhid and righteousness.

- Allah sent a succession of prophets and scriptures, including the Scrolls of Abraham, Torah, Zabur, and Injeel, culminating in the final and complete revelation of the Qur'an to Muhammad (pbuh)

2.3aii) the nature of the Islamic holy books [How and why prophets were chosen]

- Prophets were chosen by Allah for their purity, faith, and ability to guide their communities.

- They were entrusted with divine messages suited to their society's needs

2.3b) the importance of the holy books in the establishment of Islam

- The previous books prepared humanity for the final, universal message of Islam and Tawhid and are referenced in the Qur'an to show the continuity of Allah's guidance

- The core message—worship of Allah and righteous living—remained unchanged, but specific laws and guidance were adapted for each community and era, showing Allah's wisdom and mercy

- for example, some teachings that existed for Jews do not exist for Muslims, for the ease of Muslims.

2.4a) the nature and importance of predestination for Muslims

- Predestination: The concept that everything is predestined and human beings have no control in shaping their destiny.

- Allah has written all decrees in the Preserved Tablet/Lawh al-Mahfuz

- However, Allah gives Muslims free will and every choice they make is their own - it is only the fact that Allah knows what choices they are going to make, that tells us that these actions are "predestined" (As Allah does not live in the past or future)

- It reassures Muslims that everything, good or bad, happens according to Allah's plan, and that there is wisdom behind every event.

- It encourages Muslims to practice shukr (gratitude), sabr (patience), and tawakkul (Trust in Allah).

2.4b) how al-Qadr and free will relate to the 'Day of Judgment'

- As previously stated, Allah gives Muslims free will and every choice they make is their own - it is only the fact that Allah knows what choices they are going to make.

- Allah is All-Hearing, All-Seeing, All-Knowing. Allah will use these attributes to fairly judge the actions of humans that were made by free will on this Earth on the Day of Judgement.

- This also illustrates how this life is a test for all Muslims, and how we will be held accountable and responsible for all our own actions.

2.4c) the significance of belief in al-Qadr for the early Islamic community

- The idea of knowing that Allah has planned everything out, and that Allah has planned what is best for everyone, was a reassuring idea to the first Muslims who were being persecuted by the Quraysh.

- It allowed them to have tawakkul, and this tawakkul has been carried onto generations, as can be seen by Muslims who suffer in the modern day world too, such as in Falasteen.

- It also gave the early Muslims a sense of direction and purpose in life - telling them that they had to return to their Creator eventually.

- Additionally, it also showed early Muslims that their fate was planned by Allah, so they could focus on just completing their mission of preaching Islam.

- The revelation of the Qur'an on Laylat al-Qadr (the Night of Power) was itself a sign of Allah's deliberate planning and timing, marking a turning point in the history of Islam and uplifting the spirits of the believers

2.4d) the nature and significance of evil and suffering

- Muslims know that Allah has planned everything out, and that whatever He has planned and willed to happen is for the best.

- This is reassurance to Muslims, as it was to the early Muslims, that no matter what evil happens, Allah has surely planned better for them.

- "Allah does not require of any soul more than what it can afford."

- Evil actions (haram) are forbidden and arise from human free will and the influence of Shaytan

- Muslims are presented with both as a test, to measure their self-control and response to situations - e.g, do we turn to Allah to ask for help? Do we repent after sinning?

- Example: Adam (as) being expelled from Paradise after eating from the forbidden tree.

- They promote increased patience (sabr), tawakkul (trust in Allah), and endurance.

2.5ai) the nature and teachings about life after death, including final judgement

- Akhira: life after death

- At death, the soul is taken by Izrail

- On the Day of Judgment, all souls are resurrected and gathered before Allah for final judgment

- Allah justly weighs everyone's deeds, intentions, and most importantly, faith.

- "Not ˹even˺ an atom's weight is hidden from Him in the heavens or the earth; nor anything smaller or larger than that, but is ˹written˺ in a perfect Record." (Surah saba: 3)

- Everyone shall get the justice they deserve on that day - including Muslims and non-Muslims.

- Life is seen as a test; belief in the afterlife motivates Muslims to act righteously, seek forgiveness, and help others, knowing they will be held accountable

2.5aii) the nature and teachings about life after death, including paradise (Jannah) and hell (Jahanum)

- Those whose good deeds outweigh their bad are admitted to Jannah

- Those whose bad deeds outweigh their good, or who rejected Islam, are sent to Jahannam

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- Jannah is a place of complete peace, joy, and freedom from pain or suffering.

- There are multiple levels in Jannah; the higher the level, the greater the reward and pleasure

- Some people may enter Jannah after purification in hell, if they were Muslim.

- "What a marvellous reward! And what a fabulous place to rest!" (Surah kahf: 31)

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- Jahannam is depicted as a place of fire, torment, and suffering, with vivid descriptions of physical and mental pain.

- It has multiple levels, with punishments increasing in severity the lower one goes

- "The Fire will scorch their faces and their lips will be twisted in pain" (Qur'an 23:104)

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The teachings of Jannah and Jahannam serve as motivation for Muslims to live righteously, obey Allah, and avoid sin. They are also reassurance that every being will get what they deserve.

2.5aiii) the nature and teachings about life after death, including life in the grave and Barzakh

In the grave:

- the soul experiences the first stage of the afterlife in the grave.

- This is when the questioning by two angels (Munkar and Nakir) takes place - they are asked about their Lord and His Messenger.

Barzakh: The place between death and the Day of Judgement.

- The experience in the grave and Barzakh reflects the deeds and faith of the individual.

- For believers, the grave is expanded and filled with light.

- For disbelievers or wrongdoers, it is constricted and filled with suffering

- After Barzakh, all souls will be resurrected for the final judgment

2.5b) how the Islamic teachings about life after death are expressed in the Qur'an

- Muslims visit graves to remember death, pray for the deceased, and reflect on their own lives.

- It serves as a reminder of Akhirah, but does not directly benefit the deceased unless accompanied by prayer and charity on their behalf.

- The Quran often mentions death and teachings about life after it - these are mentioned as Jahanum for the disbelievers, and Jannah for the believers.

- Often, the Day of Judgement is described as a time where all humans will be stripped of all status and relationships they had - they will only care for themselves at that time.

- This also shows the chaos and terror of Allah's wrath that Muslims should be afraid of when living their lives in this world.

2.6a) the nature and importance of angels for Muslims

- Angels show Allah's majesty by doing His tasks for him, as it would be considered lowly for Allah to do them Himself.

- Allah has many, many, many angels. To illustrate how many, know that 70,000 angels visit Bayt ul-Ma'moor at a time (The Kaa'bah of the angels) - once these angels go there, they never return.

- Angels worship and obey Allah, and are beings of light -humans are still superior to them as we have free will.

- The awareness that every action is recorded by angels and will be judged motivates Muslims to seek forgiveness and strive for good deeds.

- Angels also communicated many of Allah's messages to the prophets.

2.6bi) the roles and importance of the principal angels in Islamic belief, including Jibrail (AS)

- Jibraeel (as) is the angel of revelation.

- He revealed Allah's message to all the prophets, such as bringing the Quran to Prophet Muhammad (pbuh)

- He is the link between Allah and humanity, ensuring that divine guidance reaches the chosen messengers.

- Jibraeel is also referred to as "the Holy Spirit" (Ruh al-Qudus) and is described as noble, trustworthy, and powerful in the Qur'an

- Without him, the message of Islam would never have reached Muslims.

2.6bii) the roles and importance of the principal angels in Islamic belief, including Mikail (AS)

- Mikaeel is the angel of sustenance

- He sends rain and oversees the growth of crops.

- His duties highlight Allah's mercy and provision for all living things, and his role is vital for the continuation of life on earth.

- Mikaeel's work reminds Muslims of Allah's continuous care and the blessings of sustenance.

2.6biii) the roles and importance of the principal angels in Islamic belief, including Izrafil (AS)

- Izrafil is the angel who will blow the Trumpet on Judgement day.

- His lips on the Trumpet, waiting to blow at Allah's command.

- He will blow the trumpet twice, once to cause death of everything, and second for the resurrection.

- His action marks the beginning of the final events of Akhirah

- Izrafil's role underscores the reality of resurrection and accountability in Islam.

2.6biiii) the roles and importance of the principal angels in Islamic belief, including Izrael (AS)

- Izrael is the angel of death and taker of souls.

- Izrael (AS) is responsible for taking the souls of the deceased at their appointed time, and cannot be escaped.

- He fulfills Allah's decree regarding life and death

- this is for reminding Muslims of the temporary nature of worldly existence.

- Izrael's role emphasizes the inevitability of death and the importance of preparing for the afterlife.

2.7a) the principal sources and establishment of Shari'ah law, the Qur'an and the Sunnah

- Sharia law is Islamic law, that is not only followed by Muslims in Muslim countries but Muslims all over the world.

- The Qur'an is the foremost and most sacred source of Shari'ah law, since it is directly from Allah.

- the Qur'an's rulings are final and binding for all Muslims

- The Sunnah are the deeds and actions of the Prophet (pbuh)

- It explains and elaborates principles found in the Qur'an.

- It also provides rulings on matters not explicitly mentioned in the Qur'an (such as how to pray or perform wudu)

- This is because the Prophet (pbuh) was so loved by Allah, and "was sent to perfect good character". He was called a walking Quran and Muslims should take his actions as role models.

- The Prophet (pbuh) served as the first supreme judge and leader, resolving legal problems as they arose by interpreting and expanding on the Qur'an's general provisions

2.7b) the importance of the Shari'ah in the early Islamic community

- Sharia provided the early Muslims with guidelines on how to live their lives.

- Matters that are beyond the intelligence of a human were specified by Sharia, specifically the Quran and Sunnah.

- In Medina, the Prophet established the first Muslim community and acted as its chief judge, arbitrator, and head of state.

- This ensured a just state where everyone's matters were dealt with fairly - contrary to the jahaliyyah in ancient Arabic where the opinion of white men and arabs was held over the lives of women and black men.

- It also brought together the divided tribes and introduced a better system of order, where people were not judged by their status.

- Due to this, Sharia fostered a sense of shared purpose and strengthened the Ummah.

2.7c) related sources of law, such as ijma (consensus) and qiyas (analogy)

- Ijma is the consensus or unanimous agreement of qualified Islamic scholars on a particular legal issue by interpretation of the primary sources OR one that the Quran and Sunnah do not mention (such as modern-day issues relating to social media)

- Qiyas is analogy, used to derive legal rulings for new situations by comparing them to cases addressed in the Qur'an or Sunnah, based on a shared underlying cause.

2.7di) the meaning and importance, in Muslim acts, of the difference between 'halal' and 'haram', including the distinction between the five categories (Ahkam pentad) - fard (compulsory)

- Halal means "permissible" or "lawful" in Islam. It refers to anything allowed by Allah and/or His Messenger.

- Haram means "forbidden" or "unlawful"

- Fard actions are compulsory on all Muslims.

- This includes the 5 daily prayers, fasting, zakaat, etc.

2.7dii) the meaning and importance, in Muslim acts, of the difference between 'halal' and 'haram', including the distinction between the five categories (Ahkam pentad) - mandub (recommended)

Mustahabb actions are recommended as they give Muslims extra reward.

This includes acts like giving sadaqa (extra charity) or using a miswak, praying extra prayers such as tahajjud.

2.7diii) the meaning and importance, in Muslim acts, of the difference between 'halal' and 'haram', including the distinction between the five categories (Ahkam pentad) - mubah (neither obligatory, recommended or disliked)

Mubah actions are neither obligatory, recommended or disliked.

This includes basic things such as eating chicken, walking, sleeping, etc.

2.7div) the meaning and importance, in Muslim acts, of the difference between 'halal' and 'haram', including the distinction between the five categories (Ahkam pentad) - makruh (disliked)

Makruh actions are disliked; mostly because they have the potential to lead a person to do haram, or because they could cause harm to others.

There is no sin for doing a makruh act.

These include wasting water, eating garlic before going to the mosque.

2.7dv) the meaning and importance, in Muslim acts, of the difference between 'halal' and 'haram', including the distinction between the five categories (Ahkam pentad) - haram (forbidden)

Haram actions are forbidden.

They are sinful.

These include gambling, consuming alcohol, shirk, zina, etc.

2.8a) Islamic etiquette in relations with other people

- Respect and privacy: respect others' privacy and personal space.

----> For example, seeking permission before entering someone's home or private space.

----> They promote unity and goodwill.

- Modesty and humility: In gatherings, Muslims are encouraged to sit wherever space is available, not to force others to move, and to avoid seeking prominence.

-----> This shows consideration of others and being thankful to Allah (not arrogant).

- Proper conduct in gatherings: Suppress yawning and cover the mouth if it cannot be resisted

----> Excessive yawning is not encouraged as it is uncouth.

- End gatherings with a supplication for forgiveness, acknowledging any shortcomings in speech or behavior

- Helping and serving others: Muslims are encouraged to help, serve, and show kindness to everyone, no matter their gender, age, race, or religion.

----> This promotes a sense of brotherhood.

2.8b) Islamic attitudes to lying and harmful speech

- Greetings and spreading peace: Initiating greetings with "Salam" (peace) is a key etiquette.

- Beneficial and respectful speech: Conversations should be beneficial and not harmful.

- Remaining silent when angry.

Avoiding harmful behavior: Making fun of others, gossiping, or using body language to mock is prohibited.

- Lying is haram except in three cases: a husband lying to his wife (to please her, not cheat on her silly billy), in times of war, and lying for reconcillation.

- Gossiping is haram as it is seen as "eat[ing] the flesh of your brother" (hadith) As it hurts the feelings of people, whether they know or not (because on the Day of Judgement, Allah will take revenge for even lies and gossiping done secretly)

2.8c) Islamic manners when eating

- Start with bismillah

- Eat with right hand

- Eat from your portion (Take food from directly in front of you)

- Eat moderately

- Sit down properly, avoid leaning

- Chew food well

- Don't criticize food

- Accept food politely without complaint

- Wash hands

- Say Alhamdulillah

2.8d) the importance for Muslims of correct etiquette, attitudes and manners and the support for this found in the Qur'an and Sunnah

- Having good manners presents Muslims as people with good character (such as the Prophet (pbuh))

- It prevents Muslims from being prejudiced against people and forming stereotypes, which means nobody gets hurt.

- "Whoever humbles himself for the sake of Allah, Allah will exalt him." (hadith)

- "Do not insult one another and do not call each other by [offensive] nicknames." (Qur'an 49:11)

- Also, this unites the ummah and creates a society that lives together in peace.

- It is pleasing to Allah and shows us that we are on the right path.

2.9a) the leadership of Islam following the death of the Prophet

- Abu Bakr was made the first khalifa of Islam.

- Shi'a Muslims believed Ali was the rightful successor.

- This caused the first major split in the ummah.

- Then Umar, Uthman, and finally Ali were leaders of Islam. They all spread and strengthened Islam by adding administrative roles that are to this day used by modern day Muslims and allow for a just State.

2.9b) the role and achievements of the early leaders

Abu Bakr:

- United the Arabian Peninsula by suppressing the Ridda (apostasy) wars

- Initiated the compilation of the Qur'an to preserve it after the deaths of many hafidh in battle.

- Initiated the foundation of administrative roles.

Umar:

- Oversaw rapid military expansion, conquering large parts of the Byzantine empire.

- Established the Islamic calendar (Hijri calendar)

Uthman:

- Created a standardised Quran to avoid any differences in dialect - destroyed all the old Qurans and sent the new ones to rulers.

- Faced growing internal opposition, leading to unrest and ultimately his assassination

Ali:

- Shaped Islamic jurisprudence and provided guidance during a period of intense internal conflict

- He looked out for the poor, favouring equal distribution of taxes and profit.

2.9c) the importance of the period of the early leaders for the Islamic community

- Established Islamic governance

- Preserved and standardised the Quran

- Peace expansion of Islam to other states

- Development of law, institutions, all closely cohering to Islamic values.