Bioethics Final

ethics

The study of morality using the tools and methods of philosophy

normative ethics

The search for, and justification of, moral standards, or norms

metaethics

The study of the meaning and justification of basic moral beliefs

applied ethics

The use of moral norms and concepts to resolve practical moral issues

bioethics

Applied ethics focused on health care, medical research, and medical technology

moral norms

normative dominance, universality, impartiality, reasonableness

moral obligations

concern our duty—our actions

moral value

concern things we judge to be morally good, bad, praiseworthy, or blameworthy—character or motives

absolute principle

applies without exceptions

prima facie principle

applies in all cases unless an exception is warranted

moral principles

autonomy, nonmaleficence, beneficence, utility, justice

moral objectivism

The view that there are moral norms or principles that are valid or true for everyone

ethical relativism

The view that moral standards are not objective but are relative to what individuals or cultures believe

subjective relativism

The view that right actions are those sanctioned by a person

cultural relativism

The view that right actions arethose sanctioned by one's culture

argument

At least one statement (premise) providing support for another statement (conclusion)

deductive argument

An argument intended to give logically

conclusive support to its conclusion

inductive argument

An argument intended to give probable

support to its conclusion

parts of a good argument

solid logical structure (valid or cogent) + true premises

moral argument

one whose conclusion is a moral

statement

moral theory

An explanation of why an action is right or wrong or why a person or a person's character is good or bad

moral deliberations

Involve both the general and the

particular—theory, principles, and considered judgments

consequentialist theory

Asserts that the rightness of actions

depends solely on their consequences

Deontological theory

Asserts that the rightness of actions is

determined partly or entirely by their intrinsic value

utilitarianism

Right actions are those that result in the most

beneficial balance of good over bad consequences for everyone

involved

act-utilitarianism

The rightness of actions depends solely on the

relative good produced by individual actions

rule-utilitariansim

A right action is one that conforms to a rule

that, if followed consistently, would create for everyone involved the most beneficial balance of good over bad

principlism

right actions are not necessarily those sanctioned by single-rule theories such as utilitarianism, but rather by reference to multiple moral principles that must be weighed and balanced against each other

natural law theory

right actions are those that conform to moral standards discerned in nature

through human reason

contractarianism

Moral or political theories based on the idea of a social contract or agreement among individuals for mutual advantage

virtue ethics

A moral theory that focuses on the development of virtuous character

ethics of care

The heart of the moral life is feeling for and caring for those with whom you have a special, intimate connection

feminist ethics

aimed at rethinking or revamping

traditional ethics to eliminate aspects that devalue or ignore the moral experience of women

casuistry

A method of moral reasoning that emphasizes cases and analogy rather than universal principles and theories

autonomy

A person's rational capacity for self-governance or self-determination

autonomy principle

Autonomous persons should be allowed

to exercise their capacity for self-determination

paternalism

The overriding of a person's actions or decision-making for his or her own good

weak paternalism

Paternalism directed at persons who

cannot act autonomously or whose autonomy is greatly diminished

strong paternalism

The overriding of a person's actions or

choices although he or she is substantially autonomous

physician autonomy

The freedom of doctors to determine the conditions they work in and the care they give to patients

medical futility

The alleged pointlessness or ineffectiveness of administering particular treatments

advance directive

A legal document that speaks for you if you are incapacitated

four models of the physician-patient relationship

paternalistic, informative, interpretive, deliberative

impartiality

the idea that everyone should be considered equal

beneficence

says that we should actively promote the well-being of others and prevent or remove harm to them

utility

says that we should produce the most favorable balance of good over bad (or benefit over harm) for all concerned

justice

people getting what is fair or what is their due

nonmaleficence

We should not cause unnecessary injury or harm to those in our care

modus ponens

affirming the antecedent

modus tollens

denying the consequent

active euthanasia

Performing an action that directly causes someone to die; “mercy killing”

passive euthanasia

Allowing someone to die by not doing something that would prolong life

voluntary euthanasia

Euthanasia performed when competent patients voluntarily request or agree to it

involuntary euthanasia

Bringing about someone’s death against her will or without asking for her consent although she is competent to decide

nonvoluntary euthanasia

Euthanasia performed when patients are not competent to choose it for themselves and have not previously disclosed their preferences

traditional view

Death is the cessation of breathing and heartbeat

whole brain view

An individual should be judged dead when all brain functions permanently stop

higher brain standard

individuals are dead when the higher brain functions responsible for consciousness permanently close down

autonomy and beneficence

arguments for active euthanasia

killing vs. letting die

arguments against active euthanasia

true

TF: withholding vs. withdrawing care often relates to end of life treatment

distributive justice

Justice regarding the fair distribution of society’s advantages and disadvantages

egalitarian justice

Doctrines affirming that important benefits and burdens of society should be distributed equally

libertarian justice

Doctrines holding that the benefits and burdens of society should be distributed through the fair workings of a free market and the exercise of liberty rights of noninterference

utilitarian justice

doctrines asserting that a just distribution of benefits and burdens is one that maximizes the net good for society

negative rights

imposes a duty not to interfere with a person’s obtaining something

positive rights

imposes a duty to help someone in her efforts to get something

Genesis 1:27

So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them.

Exodus 21:22

When men strive together and hit a pregnant woman, so that her children come out, but there is no harm, the one who hit her shall surely be fined, as the woman's husband shall impose on him, and he shall pay as the judges determine.

Psalm 139:13

For you formed my inward parts; you knitted me together in my mother's womb.

Jeremiah 1:5

Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, and before you were born I consecrated you; I appointed you a prophet to the nations.

Luke 1:44

For behold, when the sound of your greeting came to my ears, the baby in my womb leaped for joy.

induced abortion

The intentional termination of a pregnancy through drugs or surgery

spontaneous abortion

An abortion resulting from natural causes such as a birth defect or maternal injury

therapeutic abortion

Abortion performed to preserve the life or health of the mother

quickening

A pregnant woman’s experience of fetal movement inside her (at about 16-20 weeks)

viability

The development stage at which the fetus can survive outside the uterus

true

Most scientists involved in this issue think fetal pain is probably not possible until after the time when most abortions take place.

Roe v. Wade holdings

guaranteed right of personal privacy, this right is not unqualified, the woman’s right to end her pregnancy cannot be curtailed by the state, he state may limit—but not entirely prohibit, the state may regulate and even ban abortion AFTER viability

argument against abortion

abortion is never morally acceptable (except possibly to preserve the mother’s life) because the unborn is a human being in the full sense.

argument for abortion

Abortion is acceptable whenever the woman wants it because the unborn is not a human being in the full sense

Judith Jarvis Thomson

argues that even if the unborn is a person from the moment of conception, abortion may still be morally justified in some cases

Mary Anne Warren

asserts that five traits are central to personhood. Any being that satisfies none of these traits is certainly not a person. A fetus satisfies none and is therefore not a person

doctrine of double effect

permits the indirect killing of the unborn specifically, abortions done to save the mother’s life while having the unintended yet foreseen effect of killing the fetus

fertilization

happens when a sperm cell penetrates an egg

zygote

a single cell

blastocyst

a hollow sphere of cells

embryo

a blastocyst lodged firmly in the lining of the uterus

fetus

the unborn from the end of the eighth week until birth

Roman Catholics

assume that the unborn is a full human being from the moment of conception

speciesism

merely being a Homo sapiens—a creature with human DNA—is not sufficient for personhood

fallacy of equivocation

the term human being improperly switches meanings in mid-argument, invalidating the inference

Peter Singer

argues that a fetus's lack of self-consciousness and capacity for preferences means a woman's interests should typically outweigh those of the fetus

IVF

The uniting of sperm and egg in a laboratory dish instead of inside a woman’s body

Gamete intrafallopian transfer

the eggs and sperm (gametes) are transferred together to a fallopian tube to fertilize

zygote intrafallopian transfer

an embryo is transferred not to the uterus but to a fallopian tube

surrogate

a woman who gestates a fetus for others, usually for a couple or another woman

traditional surrogacy

Sperm from either the couple’s male partner or a donor is used to artificially inseminate the surrogate

gestational surrogacy

The surrogate receives a transferred embryo created through IVF using the sperm and egg of others

arguments for cloning

– Appeals to reproductive liberty

– Benefits to infertile couples