Unit 0 AP Psychology Mr Sinn

Definitions taken from Mr Sinn's Unit 0 Videos.

Humanistic Perspective

led by Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow. it emphasizes our potential as humans to grow as individuals and emphasizes free will and person's desire to move towards self actualization.

Psychodynamic Perspective (Psychoanalytic theory)

developed by Sigmund Freud who believed behaviorism was too limited, so instead we should focus on a person's potential growth. this perspective focuses on the unconscious mind and early childhood experience. which also uses free association.

Free Association

when a word or image triggers another idea, word, or picture inside our head.

Biopsychology (Neuroscience) Perspective

seeks to understand the links between our biological and psychological processes.

Evolutionary (Darwinian) Perspective

looks at how natural selection and adaptation influence behavior.

Behavioral Perspective

was believed by John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B. F. Skinner. focuses on observable behavior. believes that psychology should be an objective science that focuses on studying observable behaviors without referencing the mental processes. (through reinforcement and punishment)

Cognitive Perspective

focuses on how we as individuals interpret, process, and remember information. emphasizes how people process, store information, and how this influences their behavior.

Social Cultural (Sociocultural) Perspective

focuses on a person's experiences and influences in their life to better understand how culture shapes an individual.

Biopsychosocial Perspective

focuses on the interconnectedness of biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding behavioral and mental processes.

Cultural Norms

shared rules and guidelines within community that dictate appropriate and acceptable behaviors in society.

Expectations

are the anticipated behaviors and roles individuals are expected to fulfill based on the cultural norms.

Circumstances

refer to the situations in which individuals find themselves in. often including socio-economic factors, historical events, and the person's geographical location.

Cognitive Biases

confirmation bias, hindsight bias, overconfidence bias.

Confirmation Bias

is the tendency to seek out information that aligns with our point of view, while at the same time dismissing information that challenges our beliefs. this bias can lead to polarized thinking and prevents individuals from considering new information that might challenge their beliefs.

Hindsight Bias

is the tendency to think that once could have anticipated the outcome of an event or experiment after it has already occurred, or it is the tendency to think information is less surprising once you knew it.

Overconfidence Bias

is the tendency to overestimate once knowledge, the likelihood of being correct, or abilities to perform certain tasks.

Experimental Methodology

• is a systematic approach that is designed to be carried out under controlled conditions, with the goal being to test a hypothesis and establish a casual relationship between independent and dependent variable
• explains behavior
  always include random assignment which includes independent variable and dependent variable

Non-experimental Methodologies

• are used in research where a controlled experiment is not possible or ethical.
• just DESCRIBE behaviors
• they cant EXPLAIN behaviors
• can not be used to establish a casual relationship between independent and dependent variables.
• will not always use random assignment

Non-experimental Methodologies include:

• Case Studies
• Meta-analysis
• Correlation Studies
• Naturalistic Observation

Case Studies

examines an individual, group of people, event, or situation to provide detailed information and insight in to the topic of interest.
one problem that can come up is the risk of being impacted by Hawthorne Effect.

Hawthorne Effect

when the subject of a study alters their behavior due to them being aware that they're being observed.

Correlational Studies

• allows researchers to gain insight into relationship between two variables and can help determine the strength of the relationship between the variables.
• does NOT show cause and effect
• the only way to gain insight into causation is through a controlled experiment
• non experimental methods are always at risk for a third variable impacting the study

Third Variable Problem

is when an outside variable, third variable, impacts the study.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique that combines the results of a large number of studies on one experimental question into one analysis to arrive at an overall conclusion.

Naturalistic Observation

which is when the researcher observes individuals in a real world setting, the goal being to try and gather authentic data by observing people in their environment.

Hypothesis

• is a specific, testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables
• must be falsifiable, it can be proven wrong
• after its set, we need to identify the operational definitions

Operational Definitions

• outline the exact procedures used in the study and outlines how the variables are measured or manipulated in the study
• if clear, it allows the researchers to replicate the study under exact same conditions.

Independent Variable

is what is being manipulated or controlled by the researcher, this is the cause.

Dependent Variable

is the outcome that is measured in the study, this is the effect.

Confounding Variables

• which are factors other than independent variable that could impact the dependent variable
• these are the variables that the researcher was not able to remove from the experiment or study

Population

refers to the entire group that the research is studying

Sample

selected group of individuals in a population that are selected to represent the population in the study

Random Sampling

which is when each individual in a population has an equal chance of participating in a study

Stratified Sampling

which is when the population is divided into different subcategories and a random sample is taken from each subcategory

Representative Sample

A sample that reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn

Sampling Bias

exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn

Convenience Sampling

using a sample of people who are readily available to participate

Generalizability

refers to the extent to which the findings of a study can be applied to the larger population

Experiment Group

is the group in an experiment that receives the independent variable

Control Group

get the placebo, which is why this group is also sometimes referred to as the placebo group.

Placebo

is something that is as close to the independent variable as possible, but is missing a key component of the independent variable

Random Assignment

when participant are randomly assigned to be a pert of control or experiment group.

Random Selection

is when participants are randomly selected to be a part of a study.

Quasi-experiment

• this is an experiment that does not include the random assignment of participants
• this type of experiment can not determine cause-effect

Single-blind Procedure

when the participants in the study do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group, which helps prevent the social desirability bias and placebo effect

Social Desirability Bias

when participants skew their answers to create more favorability of themselves

Double-blind Procedure

• when both the participant and the researchers do not know whos in the experimental group or controlled group
• this helps counter both the experimenter bias and the social desirability bias

Experimenter Bias

when researcher's expectations, preferences, or beliefs influence the outcome of the study

Qualitative Measurements

collects non-numerical data that provides detailed, descriptive insights into participants thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

Quantitative Measurements

collects numerical data that can be statistically analyzed to identify different relationships, patterns, and differences

Likert Scale

has participants rate their agreement with statements on a scale, to provide the researcher with quantifiable data on the participants attitudes or opinions

Informed Consent

providing participants with all information about a study, including its purpose, risks, and benefits to enable them to nuke a voluntary decision to participate

Informed Assent

when the participant is not legally able to provide full consent on their own, typically cause they're a minor.

Peer Review

is a critical part in evaluating the outcome of research, this is when experts in the field assess the research study's methodology, data, and conclusions before its published.

Replication

involves other individuals conducting the research again, this allows others to check the original findings and verify results

Quantitative Data

is numbers, factors, information that is not up for interpretation

Qualitative Data

is often found in word form and comes from surveys, interviews, and is up for interpretation/debate
it describes qualities or characteristics of something

Descriptive Statistics

• when researchers organize and describe data
• here researchers are describing the data that is collected

Inferential Statistics

• when researchers make predictions about their data and independent variables
• help researchers determine if the data from a sample can be applied to a population

Null Hypothesis

is a claim that there is no effect or difference between the variables, this serves as a baseline for testing

Alternative Hypothesis

claims that there is an effect or difference between the variables

P-Value

• provides insight into the statistical significance of a studies result
• can range from 0-1
• this allows the researches to know whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis
• if it is less than or equal to 0.05, the results of the study are statistically significant, which means the result of the study was most likely not caused by chance of luck.
• if it is 0.03 it would reject null hypothesis and accept alternative hypothesis meaning that the variables are most likely connected
• the smaller it is the stronger the evidence is against the null hypothesis and more likely is the results are statistically significant
• the larger it is the most likely it is the results of the experiment were due to the chance of luck

Effect Size

• tells us strength of relationship between variables
• unlike p-value, this tells us how meaningful the effect is in real world terms
• large effect = more difference between two groups
• small effect = less difference between two groups

Statistically Significant

• tells us whether that differences is likely real or just due to chance
• shows us if results matter

Frequency Distribution Table

allows researchers to see how often sets of data occur

Histogram

is another way in which researchers display data

Central Tendency

mean, median, mode

Mean

average

Mode

most frequently occurring score

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Regression

happens when at liners such as very high or very low results are followed by results that are closer to the average

Range

Distance between highest and lowest scores in a set of data.

Standard Deviation

a measure of variability that describes an average distance of every score from the mean

Normal Distribution

is not the most common frequency distribution, it is much more common that data will have a positive skew or a negative skew

Positive Skew

occurs when scores are low and are clustered to the left of the mean

Negative Skew

has high scores that are clustered on the right of the mean

Bimodal Distribution

a distribution with two modes

Z-Scores

indicates by how many standard deviations a score is above or below the mean.

Percentiles

is the percentage of scores at or a particular score

Correlation Studies

• these studies seek to determine the relationship between two variables
• allows us to make predictions on what will happen in a study
• correlation does NOT mean causation.

positive correlation/relationship 0-1

that as one variable increases, the other also increases

negative correlation/relationship -1-0

one variable increases the other decreases, showing an inverse relationship

no correlation

there is no relationship between the variables

Defensive Claim

• involves a statement or argument that is supported by logical reasoning or evidence, allowing it to be supported in a debate or a discussion
• clearly state your position on the topic
• avoid any vague language
• don't overcomplicate your position

Scientifically derived evidence

• information, data, or conclusions that are obtained through the scientific method, such as controlled experiments
• is objective, it can be replicated, and went though peer review, making the findings more reliable and based on factual sound procedures

How to tell if evidence is scientifically derived?

• check the source
• check the methodology of the study
• evidence can be replicated