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Covalent Bonds
An equal or about equal sharing of electrons.
Non-polar covalent bond
A bond where electrons are shared equally, as seen in Hydrogen (H2).
Polar covalent bond
A bond where electrons are shared unequally, as seen in Water (H2O).
Ionic Bonds
An unequal sharing of electrons, exemplified by the electrostatic attraction between Na+ and Cl-.
Hydrogen Bonds
Requires a H covalently bonded to an electronegative atom, usually O or N.
Hydroxyl Group
A functional group where a hydrogen atom is bonded to an oxygen atom, which is bonded to a carbon skeleton.
Ethanol
An alcohol present in alcoholic beverages, which contains a hydroxyl group.
Carbonyl Group
A functional group consisting of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom.
Carboxyl Group
A group that consists of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and also bonded to an -OH group.
Carboxylic Acids
Organic acids that contain a carboxyl group.
Aldehydes
Compounds where the carbonyl group is at the end of the carbon skeleton.
Ketones
Compounds where the carbonyl group is within a carbon skeleton.
Propanal
An example of an aldehyde.
Acetic Acid
A carboxylic acid that gives vinegar its sour taste.
Acetone
The simplest ketone.
Functional Properties of Hydroxyl
Is polar due to electrons spending more time near the electronegative oxygen atom.
Hydrogen Bonding in Water
Water can form hydrogen bonds with other molecules due to the polarity of the hydroxyl groups.
Double Covalent Bond
A bond where two pairs of electrons are shared between atoms.
Single Covalent Bond
A bond where one pair of electrons is shared between atoms.
Electronegativity
The tendency of an atom to attract electrons towards itself.
Partial Charge
A charge that occurs when electrons are shared unequally, resulting in a slightly positive or negative charge.
Chemical Bonds
Interactions that hold atoms together in molecules.
Acidic Properties
Has acidic properties because the covalent bond between oxygen and hydrogen is so polar.
Structural Isomers
A ketone and an aldehyde may be structural isomers with different properties, as is the case for acetone and propanal.
Hydrogen Bonds
Can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules, helping dissolve organic compounds such as sugars.
Aldoses
Sugars containing an aldehyde.
Ketoses
Sugars containing a ketone.
Carboxyl Groups
Carboxyl groups are found in fatty acids, amino acids, and many other organic acids.
Carboxylate Ion
Found in cells in the ionized form with a charge of 1- and called a carboxylate ion (specifically, the acetate ion).
Amino Group
The amino group (—NH2) consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms and to the carbon skeleton.
Amino Acids
Compounds with both amino and carboxyl groups are called amino acids.
Base Properties
Acts as a base; can pick up an H+ from the surrounding solution (water, in living organisms).
Ionized Amino
Ionized, with a charge of 1+, under cellular conditions.
Phosphate Group
In a phosphate group, a phosphorus atom is bonded to four oxygen atoms; one oxygen is bonded to the carbon skeleton; two oxygens carry negative charges.
Organic Phosphates
Phosphate groups are found in DNA & RNA and in ATP.
Glycerol Phosphate
Glycerol phosphate provides the backbone for phospholipids, the most prevalent molecules in cell membranes.
Negative Charge Contribution
Contributes negative charge to the molecule of which it is a part (2- when at the end of a molecule; 1- when located internally in a chain of phosphates).
Methyl Group
A methyl group consists of a carbon bonded to three hydrogen atoms.
5-Methyl Cytidine
5-Methyl cytidine is a component of DNA that has been modified by addition of the methyl group.
Methylation Effects
Addition of a methyl group to DNA, or to molecules bound to DNA, affects expression of genes.
Organic Molecules
Molecules containing carbon and hydrogen are considered to be organic molecules.
Biomolecules
The four biomolecules are the large molecules necessary for life, containing C, H, and O, and some add N or have both N and P.
Monomer
Monomer examples include monosaccharide, fatty acid, amino acid, and nucleotide.
Polymer
Polymer examples include polysaccharide, lipid, polypeptide (protein), and nucleic acid.
Dehydration Reactions
Dehydration reactions are also called synthesis reactions or condensation reactions.
Glycosidic Linkage
Glycosidic linkage is formed during the synthesis of maltose and sucrose.
Cellulose Breakdown
Can a cow break down cellulose? No, but the microbes in its gut can!
Lipids
CHO; Mostly C-H (hydrocarbons); Non-polar, hydrophobic.
Fatty acids
Fundamental unit of lipids; have many methyl groups and a carboxyl group at the end.
Triglycerides
A type of lipid formed from glycerol and three fatty acids.
Phospholipids
Lipids that contain a phosphate group and are a major component of cell membranes.
Steroids
A class of lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton with four fused rings.
Ester linkage
The bond formed between a fatty acid and glycerol in lipids.
Saturated fatty acids
Fatty acids with no double bonds; solid at room temperature (e.g., lard, butter).
Unsaturated fatty acids
Fatty acids with double bonds; liquid at room temperature (e.g., olive oil).
cis isomer
A configuration where the two Xs are on the same side.
trans isomer
A configuration where the two Xs are on opposite sides.
Proteins
Polymers of amino acids; composed of CHON.
Amino Acid
The fundamental unit of proteins; contains a central carbon, amino group (NH2), carboxyl group (COOH), hydrogen, and a variable side chain (R).
Peptide bonds
The bonds that link amino acids together to form proteins.
Dipeptide
Two amino acids joined together.
Protein
One or more polypeptides.
Nucleic Acids
Biomolecules made of nucleotides; contain nitrogenous bases, sugar, and phosphate.
Nucleotide
The basic building block of nucleic acids; composed of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.
Nitrogenous bases
Components of nucleotides; include adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U).
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate; a renewable energy resource.
Caloric value of Monosaccharide
4 Cal/g; serves as an energy source/storage, structure, and signaling.
Caloric value of Fatty Acid
9 Cal/g; serves as an energy source/storage, cell membrane, and signaling.
Caloric value of Amino Acid
4 Cal/g; serves for structure, catalysis, membrane transport, carriers, signaling, and regulation.
Caloric value of Nucleotide
0 Cal/g; serves for information storage and energy carriers.
