Psych FINAL

Hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

Confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

Quantitative research

using numerical measures

Qualitative research

complex textual responses

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

Independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

Falsifiable

a hypothesis or theory that can be potentially proven false through experimentation or observation

Operational definitions

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

Replicated

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced

Sample

the group of participants

Population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.)a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Representative sample

a sample that’s representative of a larger population

Random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Convenience sampling

collecting data from a group of people who are easily accessible to you (friends/family)

Generalize

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations.)

Stratified sampling

Confounding variables

a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results.

Random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.

Experimenter bias

Double-blind study

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

Single-blind study

Social desirability bias

Experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

Control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Placebo method

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

Placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Positive correlation

Negative correlation

Study

Likert scales

Directionality problem

Third variable

Naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.

Structured interview

Case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Central tendency

Mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Bimodal

Positively skewed

Negatively skewed

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Variance

Standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Normal curve

(normal distribution) a symmetrical, bellshaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

Percentiles

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from −1.00 to +1.00).

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

Statistically significant

Effect size

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

Meta-analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

Peer review

No coercion

Informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Deception

Informed assent

Confidentiality

Risk

Protection from harm

Debriefing

Genetic predisposition

Neurons

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

Multiple sclerosis

Neural transmission

Resting potential

Threshold

Action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

All-or-none principle

Depolarization

Resting potential

Excitatory

Inhibitory

Dopamine

Serotonin

Norepinephrine

Glutamate

GABA

Endorphins

“morphine within”—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

Substance P

Acetylcholine

Alzheimer's disease

a neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities.

Myasthenia gravis

Sensory neurons

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Motor neurons

Central nervous system

the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

Reflex arcs

Somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.

Autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

Sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy.

Parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

Endocrine system

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. (

Hormones

Adrenaline