bio chem basics

Macromolecules

Large, complex molecules that are made up of lots of monomers. Most of them are polymers.

The four main marcomolecules

Proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.

Amino acids

The monomers of protein, there are 20 types of them. they are compounds with an amino group (-NH₂) on one end and a carboxyl group (-COOH) on the other end

Polypeptides

Polymers made from long chains of amino acids, making up a part of (or a whole) protein

Examples of protein functions

Chemical reactions as enzymes, communicating as hormones, and initiating movement in muscles

Monosaccharides

Monomers of carbohydrates; they are simple sugars; some key types include fructose, sucrose, and glucose

Carbohydrate functions:

Storing energy, providing structure for plant cells as cellulose

Polysaccharide

The polymer made from chains of monosaccharides; they are complex sugars, some examples are: starch, cellulose, and glycogen

Forming membranes in cells, being hormones and vitamins, being energy storage

Functions of lipids

Fatty acids

The most common monomers of lipids

Saturated fatty acid

Completely covered in hydrogen atoms

Unsaturated fatty acid

Has some DOUBLE BONDS and still has space for hydrogen atoms to bond to

Examples of lipids

Triglycerides (3 fatty acid tails), cholesterol (1 fatty acid tail), and phospholipids (phosphate head and 2 fatty acid tails (cell membrane))

Nucleic acids contain…

…the instructions for creating proteins within the body

Nucleotides

The monomers of nucleic acids

The 3 parts of a nucleotide

A phosphate, a sugar, and a base

Cytosine, guanine, adenine, thymine, and uracil

The 5 different kinds of nucleotides

RNA and DNA

The two nucleic acids (they are also polymers) that form from nucleotides

Lipids

A type of macromolecule that’s generally not stable in water (hydrophobic), the monomers are usually fatty acids

Protein

A type of macromolecule, the monomers are amino acids

Carbohydrate

A type of macromolecule, the type of monomers are monosaccharides

Nucleic Acid

A type of macromolecule that contains instructions for creating proteins, monomers are nucleotides

Genetics

The scientific study of heredity

Heredity

The passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically from one generation to another

Trait

A specific characteristic that varies from one individual to another (ex: brown hair, blue eyes, tall, curly hair)

Gregor Mendel

Austrian monk 1822-1884 who conducted the first important study of heredity using pea plants, he is often referred to as the father of genetics

Dominant trait

Masks other traits, will always show if present, represented by a capital letter

Recessive trait

Does not show if the dominant allele is present, only shows if both alleles are recessive, masked by dominant traits, represented by a lowercase letter

Genotype

The allele combination an organism has in its genetic make up (ex: Tt, ss, GG, Ww, etc)

Phenotype

The physical characteristics of an organism; the way it looks (ex: curly hair, straight hair, blue eyes, green eyes, etc)

Homozygous

Two identical alleles for a particular trait (ex: TT or tt)

Heterozygous

Two different alles for a particular trait (ex: Tt)

Punnett square

Diagram showing the gene combinations that might result from a genetic cross; used to calculate the probability of inheriting a particular trait

Deoxyribonucleic acid

Full name of DNA

Elements found in DNA

CHONP: Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus

Deoxyribose

The sugar in DNA

James Watson and Francis Crick

The people credited for discovering DNA’s structure

Nucleotides

The monomers of nucleic acids that make up DNA (because DNA is a nucleic acid)

Nitrogen-base, phosphate, and sugar

The 3 parts of nucleotides

Thymine, adenine, cytosine, guanine

The four types of nitrogen-bases found in DNA

G<>C and A<>T

The combinations of nitrogen bases that always happen

What always bonds to adenine (A)?

Thymine (T)

What always bonds to Cytosine (C)?

Guanine (G)

Sugar-phosphate groups

The sides of the DNA helix

Nitrogen bases

The rungs of the DNA helix

What organelle is DNA primarily found

Nucleus, coiled in chromosomes

What organelle are chromosomes primarily found in

Nucleus

How many chromosomes should a human have

46 in each cell

Chromosomes

DNA coils and packs into these within the nucleus

Junk DNA

The parts of DNA that are not apart of any gene

Ribonucleic acid

RNA full name

RNA

a type of nucleic acid that carries the code for making proteins from the nucleus to the cytoplasm

How many strands does RNA have?

One

Transcription

The process of making mRNA from DNA; it is the second step of protein synthesis

mRNA

Messenger RNA

tRNA

Transfer RNA

rRNA

Ribosomal RNA

Translation

The process of making a protein from RNA; it occurs as mRNA moves through a ribosome; it is the first step of protein synthesis

Double helix

The double-stranded structure of DNA

Gene

Specific DNA sequence that codes for a trait

First step of DNA replication process

DNA strands separate and nitrogen bases are exposed

Second step of DNA replication process

Nucleotides form new nitrogen base pairs

Last part of DNA replication process

Two identical strands of DNA are produced

Ribosomes

The cell organelles that perform protein synthesis by translating mRNA into polypeptide chains. They are often found attached to the rough ER or free in the cytoplasm

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER)

The organelle that acts as a network of membranes which proteins and other molecules move through, this version is essential for protein synthesis and processing.

Cytoplasm

The jelly-like substance that fills the interior of cells

Codon

Sequence of THREE adjacent nucleotide bases that form a unit of genetic code (for a specific amino acid)

The process of transcription

some DNA temporarily unzips and is used as a template to assemble complementary nucleotides into mRNA. Then, mRNA, with the DNA code, goes through the pores of the nucleus and attaches to the ribosome

The process of translation (happens after transcription)

tRNA carries amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosome. Each tRNA has 3 nucleotides that are complementary to the codon in mRNA. mRNA (with the instructions) and tRNA (with the amino acids) meet in the ribosomes. Amino acids are then joined together to make a protein/polypeptide.

Nitrogen bases from DNA to RNA

DNA (A) → RNA Uracil (U)

DNA (T) → RNA (A)

DNA (C) → RNA (G)

DNA (G) → RNA (C)

From DNA to RNA, Adenine is replaced with…

Uracil (U)

Karyotype

Map of the entire set of chromosomes in an organism

Covalent bond

When electrons are shared between atoms, forms molecules

van der Waals forces

a slight attraction formed by oppositely charged atoms close by

ionic bond

when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another

ions

positively or negatively charged electrons

cohesion

attraction between molecules of the same substance

adhesion

attraction between molecules of different substances

mixture

material composed of two or more elements or compounds that are not chemically combined

solution

evenly distributed mixture

solute

the substance that’s dissolved

solvent

the substance in which the solute dissolves

suspensions

mixture of water and non dissolved material

pH scale

indicates the concentration of H⁺ ions (acidity) in solution

acid

any compound that forms H⁺ ions in solution

base

a compound that produces hydrogen ions (OH^-) in solution

buffers

weak acids or bases that can react with strong acids or bases to prevent sharp, sudden changes in pH

activation energy

the minimum amount of energy that’s needed to get a reaction started

catalyst

substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction

enzymes

proteins that act as biological catalysts

substrates

the reactants of enzyme-catalyzed reactions

reactants

elements or compounds that enter a chemical reaction

products

elements or compounds that are produced from a chemical reaction

chemical reaction

a process that changes/transforms one set of chemicals into another; the amount of matter of reactants vs products will always be equal

SPONCH: Sulfur, phosphorus, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and hydrogen

Elements for life

Why would an atom want to bond

Because it does not have a full outer valance shell

How many electrons can fit in the first valance shell

2

How many electrons can fit in each valance shell after the first one

8

Why is water polar

Because of the uneven distribution of electrons (oxygen takes much longer to travel around than hydrogen)

Hydrogen bond