Cellular Respiration, Cell Growth and Genetics Flashcards

Flashcards for review of cellular respiration and genetics

What is acetyl-CoA?

Intermediate molecule

What is alcohol fermentation?

Produces alcohol (ethanol/ethyl alcohol) instead of lactic acid, Releases carbon dioxide as a byproduct, Common in yeasts and some plants, Important in food production processes

What is ATP?

Energy

What is cellular respiration?

The process of converting sugar into ATP using oxygen, releasing chemical energy stored in carbon-based molecules.

What is the electron transport chain?

Inner mitochondrial membrane that transfers electrons from high-energy carriers (NADH and FADH₂) to oxygen.

What is FADH2?

Energy-carrying molecule produced by the Krebs Cycle

What is fermentation?

An anaerobic process that enables cells to produce small amounts of ATP without oxygen.

What is glycolysis?

The first step of cellular respiration, where glucose (a 6-carbon sugar) is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate (3-carbon compounds).

What is the Krebs Cycle (citric acid cycle)?

Transfers energy to an electron transport chain.

What is lactic acid fermentation?

Occurs in muscle cells, Causes muscle burning during intense exercise, Happens when muscle cells lack oxygen

What is NADH?

Energy-carrying molecule produced by the Krebs Cycle

What is oxidative phosphorylation?

The final stage of cellular respiration, where most of the ATP is produced.

Where does glycolysis occur?

Cytoplasm

Where do the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation occur?

Mitochondria

What are the products of the Krebs cycle that are used in the electron transport chain?

NADH and FADH₂

What compound is given off as a waste product in the citric acid cycle?

CO₂

What process allows glycolysis to continue in the absence of oxygen?

Fermentation

What stage of cellular respiration makes the most amount of ATP?

Oxidative phosphorylation

What is the function of the electrons on the electron transport chain?

The electrons power proton pumps that move H⁺ ions across the mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton gradient.

What is binary fission?

A form of asexual reproduction in bacteria where one cell splits into two identical cells.

What is budding?

A new organism grows off the side of the parent (common in yeast and hydra).

What are carcinogens?

Substances that can cause cancer.

What is the cell cycle?

The process a cell goes through to grow, copy DNA, and divide.

What is cytokinesis?

The division of the cytoplasm to form two separate cells.

What is fragmentation?

A form of asexual reproduction where a piece of the parent breaks off and forms a new organism.

What is interphase?

The longest phase of the cell cycle; the cell grows and copies DNA.

What is mitosis?

Division of the cell’s nucleus into two identical nuclei.

What is parthenogenesis?

Reproduction from an unfertilized egg (seen in some insects, reptiles).

What is vegetative reproduction?

Asexual reproduction in plants using roots, stems, or leaves.

What limits the maximum size of a cell?

Surface area-to-volume ratio. If a cell gets too big, it can’t move materials in and out fast enough.

What happens during the G1 phase of the cell cycle?

Cell grows and performs normal functions.

What happens during the S phase of the cell cycle?

DNA is copied.

What happens during the G2 phase of the cell cycle?

Cell prepares for mitosis.

What happens during the M (Mitosis) phase of the cell cycle?

Nucleus divides.

What happens during cytokinesis in the cell cycle?

Cell splits into two.

What happens during prophase of mitosis?

Chromosomes become visible, nuclear membrane disappears.

What happens during metaphase of mitosis?

Chromosomes line up in the middle.

What happens during anaphase of mitosis?

Sister chromatids are pulled apart.

What happens during telophase of mitosis?

Two new nuclei form, chromosomes uncoil.

What does the G1 checkpoint check for?

Checks for cell size and DNA damage.

What does the G2 checkpoint check for?

Checks if DNA copied correctly.

What does the M checkpoint check for?

Makes sure chromosomes are lined up correctly for division.

What is crossing over?

Exchange of DNA between chromosomes during meiosis; increases genetic variety.

What is gametogenesis?

The process of making sperm or egg cells.

What is independent assortment?

Random arrangement of chromosomes during meiosis.

What is meiosis?

Cell division that makes sex cells with half the number of chromosomes.

What is Meiosis I?

First division, separates homologous chromosomes.

What is Meiosis II?

Second division, separates sister chromatids.

What is oogenesis?

Making egg cells in females.

What is spermatogenesis?

Making sperm cells in males.

What happens during Prophase I of meiosis?

Chromosomes pair up and crossing over happens.

What happens during Metaphase I of meiosis?

Pairs line up in the middle.

What happens during Anaphase I of meiosis?

Homologous chromosomes separate.

What happens during Telophase I of meiosis?

Two cells form.

What happens during Prophase II of meiosis?

Chromosomes prepare for second division.

What happens during Metaphase II of meiosis?

Chromosomes line up again.

What happens during Anaphase II of meiosis?

Sister chromatids separate.

What happens during Telophase II of meiosis?

Four haploid cells form.

What happens to the sister chromatids during meiosis II?

They are separated into different cells.

How many chromosomes are in a cell at the end of meiosis?

Half the number of the original (haploid). For humans, 23 chromosomes.

What is the difference between anaphase of mitosis and anaphase I of meiosis?

Mitosis: Sister chromatids separate. Meiosis I: Homologous chromosomes separate, not sister chromatids.

What is a haploid life cycle?

Most of the organism is haploid; only zygote is diploid (common in fungi).

What is a diploid life cycle?

Most of the organism is diploid; gametes are haploid (humans, animals).

What is alternation of generations?

Organism switches between haploid and diploid stages (plants).

What do sperm and egg cells contribute to the embryo?

Sperm: DNA (23 chromosomes) + centriole; Egg: DNA (23 chromosomes) + nutrients + organelles (especially mitochondria)

What is an allele?

A version of a gene (e.g., A or a).

What is a dominant trait?

A trait that shows up even if only one copy is present.

What is genetics?

The study of how traits are passed down.

What is a genotype?

The genetic makeup (e.g., Aa, AA, aa).

What is heredity?

Passing of traits from parents to offspring.

What does heterozygous mean?

Two different alleles (e.g., Aa).

What does homozygous mean?

Two same alleles (e.g., AA or aa).

What is the Law of Independent Assortment?

Genes for different traits separate independently.

What is the Law of Segregation?

Alleles separate during gamete formation.

What is a phenotype?

Physical appearance (e.g., tall, short).

What is a Punnett Square?

A chart to predict genetic outcomes.

What is a recessive trait?

A trait that only shows up if both alleles are recessive.

How do you solve Punnett Squares?

Match the alleles from each parent, Fill in the boxes to see possible genotypes, Count genotypes and phenotypes.

What is a monohybrid cross?

1 trait (e.g., Aa x Aa).

What is a dihybrid cross?

2 traits (e.g., AaBb x AaBb). Dihybrid crosses are more complex and have 16 boxes.

What is codominance?

Both traits show (e.g., red + white = red & white spots).

What is epistasis?

One gene affects how another gene is expressed.

What is incomplete dominance?

Traits blend (e.g., red + white = pink).

What are multiple alleles?

More than two possible alleles (e.g., blood type A, B, O).

What is a pedigree?

A family tree showing how traits are inherited.

What are polygenic traits?

Traits controlled by many genes (e.g., height, skin color).

What are sex-linked traits?

Traits on the X or Y chromosome.

What is X chromosome inactivation?

In females, one X is turned off in each cell.

How are sex-linked traits expressed in males and females?

Females (XX) – Can be carriers (one affected X); Males (XY) – Only one X, so they show the trait if it’s on that X.

How do you solve Punnett Squares for incomplete dominance?

Use two different capital letters (e.g., R + W = RW).

How do you solve Punnett Squares for multiple alleles?

Include A, B, O (e.g., IAIB = AB blood).

How do you solve Punnett Squares for sex-linked traits?

Show X and Y (e.g., XᴺXⁿ or XⁿY).

How do you interpret pedigrees?

Squares = males, circles = females. Shaded = has the trait. Track how the trait is passed through generations.

What is deoxyribose?

The sugar in DNA.

What is DNA?

Genetic material that stores instructions for life.

What is DNA helicase?

Enzyme that unzips DNA.

What is DNA polymerase?

Enzyme that adds new DNA bases.

What is DNA replication?

The process of copying DNA.

What are hydrogen bonds?

Weak bonds between base pairs (A-T, C-G).

What is a nucleotide?

The building block of DNA.