Unit 2: Cognition

Perception

The process by which we make sense of sensory information, combining bottom-up and top-down processing.

Bottom-up processing

A type of perception that starts with raw sensory data, focusing on the details and individual elements.

Top-down processing

A perception process that uses existing knowledge and expectations to interpret sensory information.

Schemas

Organized mental frameworks that help categorize and interpret information.

Perceptual sets

Mental predispositions that influence how we interpret sensory information based on expectations.

Gestalt principles

Rules that explain how we organize visual information into meaningful patterns.

Selective attention

The process of focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring other distractions.

Binocular depth cues

Visual information from both eyes that helps in depth perception, including retinal disparity and convergence.

Monocular depth cues

Depth perception cues that can be perceived with one eye, like relative size and interposition.

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

A cellular process that strengthens synapses based on recent patterns of activity and contributes to memory formation.

Explicit memory

Memory of facts and events that requires conscious recall.

Implicit memory

Memory that involves skills and learned tasks, retrieved without conscious effort.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts that allow quick decision-making, often at the risk of errors in judgment.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms existing beliefs.

Sunk-cost fallacy

The inclination to continue investing in a decision based on previously invested resources rather than current evidence.

Functional fixedness

A cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used, hindering problem-solving.

Serial position effect

The phenomenon where people tend to remember the first and last items in a list better than those in the middle.

Cognitive flexibility

The ability to adapt one's thinking to new, changing, or unexpected events or information.

Working memory

A limited capacity system that temporarily holds and manipulates information for cognitive tasks.

Priming

The process by which exposure to a stimulus influences response to a subsequent stimulus.

Repression

An unconscious defense mechanism that blocks access to traumatic memories.

The Flynn effect

The observed rise in IQ scores over generations, attributed to environmental factors.

Fixed mindset

The belief that abilities are static and unchangeable, which may limit one's achievement.

Growth mindset

The belief that abilities can be developed through effort and learning, leading to greater achievement.

Context-dependent memory

Improved recall when the retrieval environment matches the environment where the information was learned.

Retrieval cues

Stimuli that help trigger the recall of stored memories.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

A type of psychotherapy that aims to modify dysfunctional emotions and behaviors through cognitive restructuring.

Spearman's Central Intelligence Theory (g factor)

Spearman's theory proposes that a single general intelligence (g factor) underlies performance on all cognitive tasks. People who do well in one mental area (e.g., math) tend to do well in others (e.g., language), suggesting a shared core of mental ability.

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory

Gardner's theory states that intelligence is made up of eight distinct types, such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic—each representing a unique way individuals process and apply information. This explains how someone may excel in one area (e.g., music) but not in another (e.g., math), emphasizing the diversity of human intelligence.

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Sternberg's theory defines intelligence as three interconnected abilities—analytical, creative, and practical—explaining why some people thrive academically while others excel in real-world tasks. It bridges Spearman’s single intelligence and Gardner’s multiple intelligences by recognizing distinct yet related abilities with real-life relevance.