gvt policy test

What is politics?

The processes and actions that underpin how society functions, centred on managing resources and reconciling conflicts through power.

How does government reconcile conflicts?

through policy

Why is public policy inherently political?

Because power is unevenly distributed among groups, and policy choices privilege certain values and interests.

Define public policy.

A deliberate, purposive choice by government — including action or inaction — expressed through a pattern of interrelated decisions.

What makes policy legitimate?

It must be made by actors with the authority to act.

What does public policy express?

The political priorities and values of government actors.

What is “policy as authoritative choice”?

A top‑down, executive‑driven, intentional, rational process of allocating resources.

What is “policy as hypothesis”?

Policy is based on behavioural assumptions; real‑world outcomes test whether incentives/disincentives change behaviour.

Why must policies be regularly assessed?

To identify what works, what doesn’t, and how to adjust or apply lessons elsewhere.

What is “policy as objective”?

Policy is a means to achieve specific goals or outcomes; good process helps but doesn’t guarantee success.

What is “policy as structured interaction”?

Policy emerges from interactions among many actors (government, NGOs, institutions), not a single decision maker.

What is “policy as public value”?

Policy aims to deliver net societal benefit — the greatest good for the greatest number.

Are policies purely one type?

No. Real policies blend multiple approaches; ideal types are analytical tools.

What shapes the boundaries of public policy?

Views on the role of the state in people’s lives and the balance between individual freedom and public value.

Where does public policy occur?

At national, state, local, and institutional levels — not just within the nation‑state.

Why is policy increasingly complex?

Global interconnectedness and multi‑level governance reduce the state’s ability to control all policy areas.

What does the T2D example illustrate?

Policy involves multiple actors (federal, state, private contractors, stakeholders, councils) interacting across levels.

Define empirical.

Observable, factual, measurable.

Define normative.

Value‑based, relating to social norms and what “should” be.

What is the difference between authoritative choice and structured interaction?

Authoritative choice = top‑down government decision; structured interaction = multi‑actor consultation and negotiation.

What are ideal types?

Pure analytical categories used to simplify complex realities (e.g., “good student vs bad student”).

What is democracy?

A system where all members have equal rights to participate in decision‑making.

Key features of democracy

Government of/by/for the people; free & fair elections; freedoms of speech & association; majority rule.

What is liberal democracy?

A democracy with rule of law, protection of pluralism, no reserved powers for unelected actors, and strong horizontal accountability.

Purpose of the Australian Constitution

Restricts government power; establishes separation of powers; acts as a social contract; sets exclusive federal powers (s51).

Three branches of Australian government

Legislative, Executive, Judicial.

Three tiers of Australian government

Federal, State, Local.

Responsible government

Government is accountable to Parliament → Parliament to House → House to voters.

Accountability chain

GG/King → PM & Cabinet → Government → Legislature → Citizens.

Who sits outside the accountability chain?

Public servants & ministerial advisors.

What is Cabinet?

Chief decision‑making body of government; PM + senior ministers; exists by convention.

Cabinet functions

Clearing house; information exchange; arbiter; political decision‑maker; coordinator; guardian of strategy.

Traditional role of APS

Provide frank, fearless, apolitical advice; continuity due to tenure; technical expertise for ministers.

Why APS influence has declined

Rise of ministerial advisors and consultants; governments want more politically responsive advice.

Who are “mandarins”?

Long‑term senior bureaucrats (department secretaries) seen as powerful unelected actors.

Ministerial advisors

Politically aligned staff chosen by ministers; high influence due to proximity; accountable only to ministers.

consultants

External experts providing specialised advice; can weaken internal APS capacity.

Third sector definition

Non‑government, non‑business, non‑family organisations (NGOs, unions, charities, advocacy groups).

Third sector roles

Service delivery (e.g., Anglicare, Believe Housing); advocacy; research; submissions to inquiries.

Lobbyists

Use political connections to influence decisions; raise questions about policy quality.

Policy networks

Formal/informal links between actors with shared beliefs; coordinate policy outcomes; risk of siloing.

Policy communities

Smaller, tighter groups with shared goals; less common.

Key policy actors

Government (executive), private corporations, third sector, APS, lobbyists, ministerial advisors, consultants, courts.

What is the purpose of the policy cycle?

To provide order and an entry point into policy‑making; assumes good process → good policy (Althaus).

Why is the policy cycle considered an “ideal type”?

It simplifies reality; real policy is non‑linear but still involves all elements.

stage 1

Issue identification- The emergence of problems due to events or failures of existing policies. Only some issues gain attention and reach the policy agenda.

stage 2

Policy analysis- Structuring information and developing alternative policy options.Involves appraisal, ie Assessing pros/cons of options and comparing them.

stage 3

policy instruments- Tools used to address policy problems; often used in combination.

Categories of instruments

• Money (tax/spending)

• Law (legislation/regulation)

• Government action (service delivery)

• Advocacy (education/persuasion)

• Networking (relationships)

• Narratives (public communication)

• Behavioural economics (incentives)

stage 4

consultation/engagement- Engaging internal/external stakeholders (e.g., industry bodies, NGOs). Can be superficial “tick‑a‑box” rather than genuine influence.

stage 5

coordination- Aligning actions across government departments.

negative coordination

avoiding conflict, not improving outcomes

positive coordination

cooperating for shared benefits

strategic coordination

aligning all actions with a broader vision/goal

stage 6

decision making-authoritative actors make a decision on what to do about a particular policy problem

stage 7

implementation-Putting chosen instruments into practice through programs, legislation, etc.

stage 8

evaluation- Assessing effectiveness, unintended consequences, and need for adjustment. Feeds back into new issue identification — cycle is continuous.

Colebatch’s critique

Government is not a machine that solves problems; cycle encourages bureaucratic compliance and narrow framing.

Everett’s critique

Cycle assumes rationality and describes what happens after the issue is already defined.

Butcher & Mercer’s critique

Cycle doesn’t help assess feasibility, choose instruments, or judge effectiveness.

General critique

Overemphasises government; ignores APS, stakeholders, third sector; oversimplifies messy real‑world policy.

What is a policy problem?

An unrealised need, value, or opportunity for improvement with a public dimension.

What are functional definitions?

Defining problems by policy sectors (e.g., health, education).

One advantage of functional definitions?

Helps identify relevant actors and typical policy instruments.

One limitation of functional definitions?

Internal variation within categories (e.g., uni vs kindergarten).

Example of a policy dichotomy?

Foreign vs domestic policy.

Example of a policy trichotomy?

Situations, discrepancies, opportunities.

Classification schemes

dichotomies, trichotomies, taxonomies, typologies

What is a taxonomy?

A list of factors describing policy problems without theoretical linkage.

Rochefort and Cobb taxonomy dimensions

problem causation, severity, incidence, novelty, proximity, crisis, target population, means-ends orientation of problem definer and nature of the solution.

Dunn’s characteristics taxonomy

interdependency, subjectivity, artificiality, and instability

What is artificiality?

The extent to which problems are socially/politically constructed.

What is instability?

How static or stable a problem is over time.

What is interdependency?

Linkages between this problem and other problems.

What is subjectivity?

Interpretations of objective facts (e.g., what rising CO₂ “means”).

Peters and Hornbeek Taxonomy

core attributes ( solubility, complexity [political, programmatic (technical complexity, causal complexity)], scale of the problem) and attributes directly tied to instruments (divisibility, monetarization, scope of activity contributing to the problem, interdependence) 

Ways to define policy problems

functional definitions, classification schemes, problem structuring, framing

What two variables define Peters’ problem structures?

Certainty + value agreement.

What is a structured problem?

High certainty + high value agreement.

What is an unstructured problem?

Low certainty + low value agreement.

what is a typology?

sets or groupings of factors with some interlinking theory

What two axes define Stone’s causal stories?

Guided vs unguided actions; intended vs unintended consequences.

Two examples of typologies

Peters problem structuring, Stone’s causal stories

What is problem structuring?

Constructing what the problem is so it can be solved.

Problem structuring model example

Dunn’s flowchart -Problem sensing, problem situation, problem structuring

What is framing?

Simplifying complex conditions into an understandable, addressable narrative.

What is a focusing event?

A sudden event or shift that makes a problem salient.

What is the core claim of WPR?

Governments construct the problems they claim to solve.

WPR question 1

What’s the problem represented to be?

WPR 2

2. What assumptions underlie this representation?

What three tools help identify assumptions?

Binaries, concepts, categories.

Example of an assumption in traffic congestion?

Liberal rights to property and free movement.

WPR 3

How has this representation come about?

How to identify how the problem has come about?

Tracing historical, cultural, and institutional origins.

WPR 4

What is left unproblematic?

WPR 5

What are the silences?

three types of effects from a particular representation

Discursive, subjectification, lived.

Who typically disseminates problem representations?

Government, media, institutions.

WPR 6

What effects are produced by this representation?

WPR 7

How/where has this representation been produced, disseminated, defended?