3) Kantian ethics- revision guide

What is Kant’s approach to ethics?

-the ethics of an action depends on whether it fulfills our duties

-argues all humans have duties- certain actions are good and we should do them regardless of our feelings or the outcome

What are the three aspects of Kantian ethics?

-duty

-hypothetical imperative

-categorical imperative

-three postulates

Who is Immanuel Kant?What did he argue?

-born in Konigsberg in east Prussia

-argued the mind organises our experience so there is phenomena and noumena

-uses this to argue that it’s impossible to prove God’s existence but moral truths are built into the world

What is phenomena?

how the world appears

What is noumena?

how the world really is

What other ethics and philosophy do Kant’s views appear in?

-sexual ethics and business ethics

-philosophy of religion- criticises ontological argument

How do different people define good?

-making people happy- though this can cause harm

-courage but you can courageously do wrong

What is the only thing that is good at all times according to Kant?

-good will

-having a good intention to do our duty

What two false intentions does Kant rule out?

-1) basing our views of right and wrong on consequences- they aren’t in our control

-2)basing decisions on inclinations (what we want to do) -emotions are inconsistent

To Kant, what matters most rather than our inclinations or views of consequences?

doing our duty- we logically work out the right thing to do and don’t expect a reward

How does Kant suggest we can work out our duty?

-by establishing what sort of command/ imperative is behind it

-when we carry out an action we have a rule/ maxim in mind

-we must establish whether it’s hypothetical imperative or a categorical imperative

Hypothetical imperative?

-”if” commands

-e.g- “don’t eat more cake” meaning “don’t eat more cake if you want to lose weight”

Categorical imperative?

-there is no “if”- they are absolute

-”do not kill” for example

-our DUTY to act on any categorical imperative

What are the three different tests Kant suggests can be applied to a maxim in order to see if it is a categorical imperative?

1) Formula of Natural Law( universal law)

2) Person as ends

3) Kingdom of ends

1)What is Kant’s Formula of the law of nature (universal law)?

-when considering an action we must ask “would it be logical for this action to be universalised”

-E.g- stealing cannot be- takes someone else’s property

-no one would own anything so there would be no stealing

2)What is Kant’s Person as an ends?

-second test of our maxim is how people are treated

-Kant believes we should treat people as an end in themselves- free, rational beings deserving of respect and dignity

-we should’’t treat them as a means to an end to achieve a purpose

3)What is Kant’s Kingdom of ends?

-final test is a combination of the first 2

-asks us to imagine we’re part of a law-making group in a fictional country where everyone treats others as an end. Kant suggests that a categorical imperative could be permitted in such a place

What is a common objection to Kant’s second formulation?

-we can’t avoid treating others as a means to an end

-when we buy things are we using the shopkeeper?Kant says no

Response to objection of Kant’s second formulation?

-we are not to treat others SOLELY as a means to an end

-you still consider shopkeepers and teachers as people

What does Philippa Foot challenge about Kant’s view?

-that mortality should be based on a series of categorical imperatives

What is Foot’s key interest?

-answering the question of whether we should be moral- same as Plato

What did Foot argue in her 1995 essay “Mortality as a system of Hypothetical Imperatives”?

-argues that what’s missing from Kant’s account is an adequate explanation of our motives/ desires

-only hypothetical imperatives give us a reason to act- “if you want an A you should study”

-gives us clear reason to act in a certain way

-categorical imperatives simply tell us we must do something- no account of motives

Who is Foot influenced by? Explain

-virtue ethics of Aristotle- thinks this may help with the issue of motivation

-many of virtues and good character traits of human action are things we must freely choose- contingent, controlled by what we desire

everything about morality is hypothetical

In a reinterpretation of Kant’s remarks, what does Foot suggest about morality and actions?

-we shouldn’t be forced to be virtuous but be volunteers

What does Kant argue is the only intrinsic good?

good will

-for all other things e.g pleasure, courage, love there would be a qualification- they could be good or bad depending on circumstances

-good will is always good

Why does Kant good will is purely good?

-the intention and desire to do the right thing

-explains that even if our willing achieves nothing, this doesn’t mater- intentions and actions > consequences

Quote from Kant on good will?

“Nothing can possibly be conceived in the world, or even out of it, which can be called good, without qualification, except a good will”

(check the other quote and learn it page 32)

For Kant what do these quotes show?

-the 2 main ways of establishing what our duty is- it is wrong for us to carry out an action that we couldn’t logically desire all people do

-we are also required to consider persons as w e act- valuing and respecting ourselves just as we should do to others

Quotes from Kant on maxim and how to treat humanity?

-”Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law”

-”Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never merely as a means to an end, but always at the same time as an end”

Reasons Kantian ethics are helpful regarding duty to ourselves and others?

-duty as an idea is better than depending on our changeable emotions- duty less prone to personal bias

-Kant’s ethics are rational- gives humans responsibility in making decisions and believes humanity’s ability to reason and work things out will enable us to find correct answers

-Consequences can’t be predicted- situation ethics/utilitarianism require us to predict the future outcome of actions. Can’t be held responsible for things outside our control

-Kant’s universal law principle is useful- similarities with principle found in religious faiths of not doing to others what you wouldn’t want done to you

-values persons- respects their rationality and treating persons as ends is helpful in rational ethics and ensures EVERY human is significant unlike utilitarianism

-modern justice/ rights lead back to Kant

-can be seen as secular- principles can be applied to theists and atheists

Reasons Kantian ethics aren’t helpful regarding duty to ourselves and other?

-Kant’s rules have clarity as an absolutist ethical system but no flexibility- states lying is morally wrong, even to a murderer seeking a victim! Can be seen as immoral to do “duty” here

-outcome of situations ignored - though we can’t control it, it is predictable. Doing something that obeys a moral rule but will likely cause misery? suffering seems wrong

-gives no clear guidance on what to do when duties clash- we can universalise telling the truth and saving a life- both categorical imperatives. Kant gives no way of deciding between duties

-good THEORETICAL solution to many moral issues- kingdom of ends shows to make moral rules for an ideal world. Ignores reality- life is complicated and in the real world his solutions are impractical

-universal law principle doesn’t show moral duties- non-moral maxims can logically be uniervalised e.g “everyone should sing the national anthem each Wednesday”- doesn’t show real moral duty. Similarly, not being able to universalise something doesn’t make it immoral.

What two types of duties does Kant suggest there are?

-perfect and imperfect

What is a perfect duty?

-where our maxim cannot be universalised as logical contradiction would occur

-if we were to make a false promise, we promise something but have no intention of carrying it out but have no intention of carrying it out, this is something that cannot logically be uniervalised as a promise relies on the idea people are telling the truth

• based on logic

What are imperfect duties?

-do not create logical contradictions but present us with a situation a rational person wouldn’t want.

-e.g we could conceive a world where people didn’t help others but a rational person couldn’t desire to be part of it

• based on morality

Reasons right and wrong does depend on duty?

-duty is rational+ is not subject to our changing emotions/ circumstances

-concept of duty rightly involves giving to each person the things we owe in terms of how we treat them- allows us to respect person

Reasons right and wrong does not depend on duty?

-concept of duties is useful in a public sector employment- but doesn’t seem to apply to every area of life

-danger of conflating duty with obedience to authority

-there are often issues with conflicting duties where we cannot fulfill both of goof actions that seemed to be required

What is Kant influenced by?

-enlightenment thinking

-intellectual and philsophical movement valued reason as source of human knowledge

-emphasis on scientific method and reason as a source of knowledge+ political ideas of liberty and tolerance- rejected authority of Church and monarchs

What is the enlightenment period argued to have done?

-sowed seeds of political revolutions of the 19th century

-motto- “Sapere Aude”(dare to know)

What does Kantian ethics rely on?

-the accuracy of human reason

What belief of Kant’s influenced him to write on ethics?

-his belief in the power of humans to reason accurately to find answers without external authority influenced him to write on ethics

For Kant, what is a product of reason?

moral law- we can rationally understand categorical imperative

Because we are autonomous beings what does Kant believe about our moral decision making?

-we can either choose to follow moral law or not- make free decisions

Response to Kant- Aside from reason, what are other aspects of human nature?

-ancient philosophers e.g Aristotle stressed the rational and irrational parts of the soul

-irrational- emotions/ appetites- key aspect of our nature

-emotional aspects of human nature need to be embraced not repressed

Reasons Kant is wrong to rely on human reason?

-there are limits- we experience the world through categories we impose. We cannot experience “noumena” and issues e.g God’s existence we cannot prove

-power of reason objections- Barth argues human reason is limited so we require God’s revelation to gain truth- link to human falleness

-additionally Freud argues our moral thinking is the product of subconscious drives produced by bringing- morality is instinctive> reasoned

-situation ethics- rejects ethics being based on duty/ reason. If applied in Kant’s way, reason may not give us the right answer. AGAPE love is a better motivation- Fletcher

Reasons Kant is right to rely on human reason?

-morality does come within the sphere of reason- our moral duties are a priori synthetic- we are able to work them out using reason

-autonomy-everyone has the power of reason. Treating people as ends means we owe each other respect to our autonomy, allowing people to reason for themselves rather than imposing our ethical ideas

-Kant assumes one fixed human nature, one way of reasoning- so we should each use reason to come to the same conclusions about what the categorical imperatives are- just like how we have th same answers to maths questions

What is Kant guilty of relying on according to three postulates?

ideas of God

What 3 things does Kant argue must exist in order for absolute and objective moral duties to exist?

3 postulates- must be assumed for morality to work:

1. humans having free will

2. the existence of the afterlife

3. God’s existence

What is the first postulate we must assume for morality/duties to work?

1) Humans have free will

-Kant- “ought implies can”

- when we talk in terms of moral duties (oughts and shoulds) we must assume the person is able to do the duty.

- If we have no control over our actions we cannot be held accountable for the duty

What is the second postulate we must assume for morality/duties to work?

2)The existence of the afterlife

-we are required to seek the highest good- summum bonum

-highest good occurs when perfect duty is rewarded by perfect happiness- it’s our duty to aim for this

-as “ought implies can”, we CAN reach our highest good

-yet our experience in this life is good deeds don’t always have good outcomes

-so if highest good CAN be achieved, but not in this lifetime, logically we must postulate the existence of an afterlife

What is the third/final postulate we must assume for morality/duties to work?

3) God exists

-in order for summum bonum to occur+ goodness is rewarded by happiness, there must be a God who ensures the justice of the universe

Why doesn’t Kant think the three postulates are proved?

-they aren’t PROVEN but must be ASSUMED in order for morality to exist

Why does bringing in God as a required postulate undermine Kant?

-he claims his ethical system is independent of religion and moral duties can be rationally be deduced by anyone regardless of beliefs

For Kant, why should our motives be our duty?

-we have worked out this is our duty- reward shouldn’t come into it, just a benefit that is not in itself why we do it

How are Kantian ethics based on duty and religiously motivated systems different?

-e.g divine command ethics are based on God and natural law, where worshiping God is 1/5 primary precepts

-Kant is optimistic about human nature- Augustine and others believe humans are “fallen”- Kant values the power of human reason to make good decisions and in human free will to act on them

-shows although Kant believes in God and God is a necessary moral thought, the religious element doesn’t affect the motive/ action itself

As an absolutists does Kant believe in the Ten Commandments and treatment of Jesus?

-he may agree but saying he agrees with religious statements misunderstands his theory