Chapter 3: Studying the Nervous System Flashcards

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering brain study methods, structures, neuronal communication, and evolutionary concepts from Chapter 3.

Gyri

The bumps visible on the surface of the human brain.

Sulci

The grooves visible on the surface of the human brain.

Neuropsychologists

Scientists who study patients with brain damage to learn about brain function through inference and behavioral changes.

Electroencephalograms (EEGs)

A non-invasive method used to measure electrical brain activity via multiple electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp.

Event Related Potentials (ERP)

A technique using a computer to note when a sensory, cognitive, or motor event takes place and analyzing the specific wave patterns that follow.

Lesioning

A process used in animal studies where specific brain areas are targeted for destruction to observe the resulting effects on behavior.

Computed Tomographic Scans (CT scans)

Technique that produces clear, detailed, two-dimensional X-ray images of the brain; multiple angles are combined for a three-dimensional image.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

A technique using a strong magnetic field to produce three-dimensional images of brain anatomy and physiology without using radiation.

Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)

A structural imaging technique that measures the orientation and integrity of white matter to assess brain damage.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

A method that delivers an electromagnetic pulse to a targeted brain area to temporarily disrupt brain activity in a conscious person.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

A procedure where radioactive chemicals (like radioactive glucose) are injected into the bloodstream to visualize overall brain activity during tasks.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow and oxygen use, often referred to as a BOLD signal.

BOLD Signal

An acronym standing for \text{blood oxygen level dependent}, referring to the coupled increase in blood flow and oxygen use in active brain areas.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The component of the nervous system consisting specifically of the brain and the spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Made up of all the nerves throughout the body that deliver information between the periphery and the central nervous system.

Afferent Neurons

Neurons that carry sensory information from the body to the central nervous system.

Efferent Neurons

Neurons that carry information out from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons that connect two or more neurons, acting as a relay; in the spinal cord, they communicate with both sensory and motor neurons.

Somatic Nervous System

Part of the PNS that transmits information about body sensation and movement to and from the central nervous system.

Autonomic Nervous System

The portion of the PNS that comprises the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, operating mostly without conscious control.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system activated under conditions of stress, responsible for the \text{"fight-or-flight"} reaction.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system active during restful times, sometimes called the \text{"rest and digest"} system.

Spinal Cord

The portion of the CNS extending from the base of the brain that mediates sensory and motor information and basic reflexes.

Schwann Cells

Cells in the PNS that create an environment for injured nerve fibers to regenerate and produce the myelin sheath.

Hindbrain

The part of the brain closest to the spinal cord consisting of the medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum.

Medulla

Extends from the spinal cord; regulates basic bodily functions like heart rate and respiration, and reflexes like sneezing.

Pons

Acts as a bridge between the medulla and other areas; involved in sleep, dreaming, and facial expressions; contains the locus coeruleus.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter important for arousal and attention; also involved in stimulating the sympathetic nervous system.

Cerebellum

A structure at the back of the brain important for motor coordination and learning movements like playing piano.

Reticular Formation

A complex neural network extending from the hindbrain to the midbrain that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and arousal.

Substantia Nigra

A brain region important for fluidity of movement and inhibiting movement; it is the major structure damaged in Parkinson’s disease.

Thalamus

A large collection of nuclei that serves as a relay station for all incoming sensory information except smell.

Hypothalamus

Located beneath the thalamus; important for motivated behaviors (eating, drinking, sex) and control of the endocrine system.

Limbic System

A group of interconnected structures (including hippocampus and amygdala) involved in motivation, emotion, learning, and memory.

Amygdala

Brain area involved in recognizing and responding to fear-inducing stimuli and processing positive emotions.

Hippocampus

A brain region important for forming new episodic memories and learning about one's spatial environment.

Basal Ganglia

A group of nuclei including the caudate nucleus and putamen that regulate and coordinate voluntary movement control.

Nucleus Accumbens

An area of the basal ganglia important for motivation and reward learning, receiving dopamine projections from the midbrain.

Cerebral Cortex

The folded outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres responsible for complex functions like consciousness, language, and thought.

Association Cortex

Cortical areas responsible for higher-order sensory processing, thinking, planning, and integration of information from different senses.

Occipital Lobe

Located at the back of the skull; contains the primary visual cortex for processing visual stimuli.

Temporal Lobe

Part of the cortex important for processing sound frequency, language comprehension, and recognizing complex visual stimuli like faces.

Wernicke’s Area

An area of the temporal cortex, usually in the left hemisphere, important for helping us understand language.

Parietal Lobe

Lobe of the cortex involved in processing tactile information (touch, pain) and localizing visual cues in space.

Somatosensory Strip

A band of parietal cortex that processes tactile information from body parts; sensitivity is related to the amount of cortex dedicated to the part.

Frontal Lobe

Located behind the forehead; involved in temporal planning, movement control, and understanding social relationships.

Broca’s Area

A brain region in the frontal lobe critical for speech production and providing grammatical structure to language.

Prefrontal Lobe

The anterior portion of the frontal cortex involved in high-order thinking, moral reasoning, and working memory.

Glial Cells (Glia)

Cells that make up the nervous system along with neurons; they provide structural support, create the blood-brain barrier, and produce myelin.

Dendrites

Parts of the neuron that extend like branches from the cell body to receive inputs from other neurons.

Axon

The part of the neuron that carries signals away from the cell body toward other neurons.

Astroglia

Star-shaped glial cells that create the blood-brain barrier and regulate blood flow to brain regions.

Oligodendroglia

Glial cells in the central nervous system that provide the insulating myelin sheath for axons.

Resting Potential

The electrical charge of a neuron when it is not communicating, typically between $-65\,mV$ and $-70\,mV$.

Action Potential

A sudden positive change in the electrical charge of a neuron’s axon (spike or firing) that travels down the axon.

Threshold

The point, approximately $-40\,mV$, at which a neuron initiates an action potential.

Absolute Refractory Period

A very brief period after an action potential during which a neuron is completely unable to fire again.

Saltatory Conduction

The process by which an action potential jumps from tower to tower (node to node) down a myelinated axon.

Synapses

Tiny fluid-filled spaces, about $20\,nm$ wide, between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of another.

Glutamate

The most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain; involved in learning and memory.

GABA (Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid)

The most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain; reduces the activity of the neurons it binds to.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Neurotransmitter important for muscle stimulation, attention, and memory; its loss is linked to Alzheimer’s disease.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter associated with mood, voluntary movement, and reward; excessive levels in frontal lobes are found in schizophrenia.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of mood, appetite, sleep, and the perception of pain.

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s ability to create new neural pathways and reorganize in response to experience, environment, or injury.

Ischemic Stroke

Damage to the brain caused by a loss of oxygen due to a blockage in an artery.

Hemorrhagic Stroke

Damage to the brain where an artery has broken, allowing blood to leak directly into a brain area.

Corpus Callosum

A dense bundle of axons that allows for communication between the left and right hemispheres of the cortex.

Homologous Traits

Physical or behavioral characteristics that are similar between species and can be traced back to a common ancestor.

Convergent Evolution

The development of similar characteristics in different species that do not share a common ancestor, often due to similar environmental pressures.