Cellar and winery waste management exam study set

What is the philosphy of cleaner production?

Prevention better than cure

What is the conventional approach to waste minimisation in comparison to the cleaner approach?

CONVENTIONAL:

• reactive

• pay premium for disposal

CLEANER:

• proactive

• reduce/eliminate waste at the source

What are the benefits of cleaner production?

• compliance at lower cost and less treatment/disposal

• more efficient utilisation of resources and improved productivity

• better quality of products/services

• enhanced corporate image

• improved OHS and employee relations

• cost savings

What is involved in the cleaner production protocol?

Identify critical waste parameters

⬇

audit waste generation activities

⬇

devise practical methods for waste minimisation

⬇

assess benefits and costs

⬇

implement waste minimisation program

Why characterise WW?

• to aid in design of treatment plan

• to monitor and control operations

• to meet legal requirements

• to detect long-term trends

In the classification of WWW, what are some common test groups?

• gross pollution measures → BOD, COD, grease, SS, NH3

• tests for aesthetic appeal → colour, turbidity, taste, odour

• microbiological tests → indicator organisms

• tests for toxins → pesticides, heavy metals, radioactive

• tests for health-risk materials → flouride, nitrate

• tests to determine suitability for other incidental uses → corrosion effects Fe, Mn and hardness salts Ca and Mg

• operational tests → monitor plant performance - e.g., blue-green algae

What are the population measures?

• gross pollution measures

• aesthetic appeal

• microbiology

• toxins

• incidental use - suitability

• determine process suitability

What is DO?

Dissolved O2

Essential to aquatic life, minimum ~ 5mg/L needed to sustain a balanced population of aquatic flora and fauna

saturation at 15 degrees - 10.2 mg/L (~10 ppm)

Pollutant addition - decreases available DO - may render life unsustainable

What measures are done for solids?

• suspended solids - SS

dry weight retained on filter

classified as fixed and volatile (organic)

• dissolved solids

remains after SS test

salinity indicator - can be measured by EC

• settleable solids

volume of settable solids

imhoff cone

What are the gross pollution measures?

• DO

• temperature ~ 10-21 degrees

• pH ~ 6-7

• BOD

• COD

What is total organic carbon?

Determines:

• total concentration of C as organics

• process → combustion in 2 furnaces

High temperature - organics + inorganics decompose → CO2

Low temperature - acid packing - only inorganics decompose

Difference = TOC (organic C content)

Problem:

• plastic will register on TOC test

• useful for industrial wastewaters - nutrient deficient or contains toxics

What is involved in nutrients N and P

NH₃^-N

• most reduced form

• composed of NH₃ (ammonia) and NH^-₄ (ammonium) - unionized form most toxic

NO₃-N

• promotes excess growth

• diseases can come from this

TKN - total kjedahl nitrogen

• combination of ammonia and organic N

Toal P

• phosphorous is not toxic but is often limiting nutrient for growth

• excess - leads to algal blooms and eutrophication

As for aesthetic parameters what is included under taste and odour?

• quantified by semi-subjective human repsonse

  • odour and taste panels

• mainly volatile organics

  • disinfection by-products

  • algae (may produce toxins)

  • ammonia odours

  • anaerobic odours - sulphides, phenols

As for aesthetic parameters what is included under colour?

2 types: true and apparent

• true: water colour in absence of turbidity (reflected, refracted and absorbed light)

• apparent: observed colour

measured by comparison to unit colour standards

As for microbial measures what is included under microorganisms?

• Indicator bacteria

  • fecal coliforms - indicator of fecal contamination - should be present if pathogens are present

• viruses

• algae

• protozoa, ameoba and ocoocysts

As for toxin measures what is included under this?

• heavy metals

• organics - pesticides

• other inorganics, cyanide, boron

What are the key chemical components in WWW and their relevance to land application?

• BOD contributors: sugars, ethanol, tartaric & malic acids

• COD contributors: phenolics & sulfite from wine

• Cations (Na, K, Ca, Mg):

  • Sources include water hardness, bitartrate crystallization, and caustic cleaners

• SAR (Sodium Adsorption Ratio):

  • Values >4 can lead to soil degradation during land application

• Sulfates:

  • Arise from high-SO₂ must filtration and distillation residues

What are some common sources of WWW?

• cleaning of tanks

• hosing down of floors and equipment

• rinsing of transfer lines

• barrel washing

• spent wine and product losses

• bottling facilities

• lab WW

• stormwater diverted into or captured in the WW management system

What are the main requirements for WWW to be considered fit for use in vineyard irrigation?

• acceptable pH, EC and cation balance

• should not exceed thresholds for Na, K and toxic ions

• biochemical oxygen demand levels must be managed to avoid odour and groundwater issues

• must be tailored to soil type, crop requirements and irrigation cycles

How does WWW irrigation affect soil chemistry and structure?

• increases Na and K in soil - can disrupt soil structure

• leads to soil dispersion, reduced infiltration and clogging

• can alter soil chemistry and increase leaching of salts and dissolved organic carbon

• BOD is not harmful to soil if applied appropriately - may increase organic carbon

What is the impact of high Na and K in WWW on soil structure?

• Na and K displace Ca - reducing soil stability

• increases SAR and PAR

• leads to soil dispersion and possibly erosion - especially in clay soils

• poor soil structure can reduce plant growth and water movement

What is the sodium adsorption ration (SAR) and why is it important in WW irrigation?

• SAR = Na / √(Ca+Mg)

• indicates the risk of soil sodicity and dispersion

• high SAR = higher risk of poor soil structure

• SAR should be monitored to protect soil health

What benefits can WWW provide when used appropriately for irrigation?

• increases organic carbon in low OC-soils

• may improve soil microbial activity

• supports recycling of nutrients and water

• enables integrated waste management with crops and livestock

What are the risks of using WWW with high salt content on vineyards?

• salt accumulation in soil - Na and K

• reduced vine growth and possible yield loss

• can cause osmotic stress and toxic ion effects on vines

• may lead to wine quality issues - colour extraction problems in reds

What is the recommended approach to sustainably manage WWW irrigation?

• match WW quality with soil and crop requirements

• monitor SAR, PAR, EC, BOD and nutrients

• use soil amendments (calcium nitrate) to manage ion balance

• integrate with crop rotation and soil health practices

What is meant by “fit for purpose” in WWW treatment?

• treatment tailored to intended use - e.g., land application, reuse, discharge

• balances treatment intensity with environmental risk and economic feasibility

• avoids over-treatment and focuses on key hazards - e.g., salt, BOD

What is the purpose of the slaking and dispersion test in soil management?

• evaluates soil structural stability

• Slaking = breakdown of macoaggregates = low organic matter

• dispersion = breakdown of microaggregates = high Na or K present

• helps decide if soil can withstand WW irrigation

What are some beneficial crops for WWW reuse?

• lucerne, clover grass, maize, sorghum, soybeans

• crops with moderate to high K uptake help reduce soil accumulation

• grapevines: moderate K uptake - 150kg/ha for 15 t/ha yield

What are the key processes in winery liquid treatment?

1. preliminary treatment

2. primary treatment

3. secondary treatment

4. advanced (tertiary) treatment

5. post treatment

6. sludge disposal

Why do treatment processes widely vary in design?

due to:

• WW composition and volume

• treated WW quality requirements

• new & improved technologies

• variety of available processes

• scale

• chemical and resource availability

• designers opinion and bias

What are the key drivers of liquid waste treatment?

• end use (MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR)

  • all treatment options have strengths and limitations

  • in choosing treatment system - must minimise capital costs, operating costs and make system as automated and robust as possible

  • must be fit for purpose

What are the key quantitative indicators in liquid treatment?

• operators

  • need rapid and reliable quantitative indicators

    • to determine if effluent meets allowable thresholds

    • diagnose, optimise & troubleshoot the plant processes

  • key indicators:

    • pH, EC, DO, COD, turbidity

    • BOD - biological oxygen demand - useful indicator, expensive too large a lag time to assist with day to day management

    • COD suggested as a surrogate

    • Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) of irrigation water provides a good indicator of potential damage to soil structure through repeated application of the wastewater (reuse and irrigation)

What is a woodlot and how are they used in liquid treatment/disposal?

a designated area, where WWW ends up being irrigated on (instead of vineyard)

long term impacts of major concern to industry and regulators

sodium ions present can accumulate in soil

• with time, sodicity causes dispersion of clay particles

• leads to surface crusting, reductions in water infiltration, water logging, erosion and poor soil fertility

What is the typical impact of WWW irrigation on groundwater nitrate levels?

• generally low risk

• small peaks of nitrate-N (max ~ 3.6mg/L) detected in shallow ground water

• levels well below 10 mg/L NO₃^--N (safe for potable use)

• lower than nitrate levels after typical urea application ~20 mg/L

What is the most persistent issue in WWW management and how should it be addressed?

• SALT most persistent problem

• best addressed by controlling winery practices

• reduced BOD/COD to simplify WW management and minimise wine loss

• rapid irrigation after minimal treatment is cost-effective

• requires monitoring to confirm consistency

What are the key challenges preventing effective waste minimisation in the wine indsutry?

• practices often ad hoc and inefficient

• lack of systematic methodology to target specific waste streams

• external motivations are often the main drivers

• failure to realise full potential due to lack of strategic planning

• industry needs to follow reduce, reuse and recycle principles

What is recommended for improving waste minimisation in wineries?

• adopt best practice principles - reduce, reuse, recycle

• implement systematic, targeted waste management approaches

• move beyond external motivations to internal sustainability strategies

What are key features of low-cost treatment systems for small wineries?

• designed for wineries crushing a few hundred to few thousand tonnes

• aim to minimise capital and operating costs

• system should be as automated and robust as possible

• prototype uses sedimentation/anaerobic digestion, low-level aeration, and a soil based WW bioremediation cell

• shows promising results for rural small WWW treatment

What treatment strategies are suitable for larger wineries?

Can afford more complex and costly systems

options include:

• conventional aerobic and anaerobic systems

• sequencing batch reactors

• combined anaerobic/aerobic systems

• artificial wetlands

each technology has its own +/-

During preliminary treatment of WW what is involved?

1. screens

   • gross solids removal (coarse)

   • suspended solids (SS) removal (fine)

2. grit chambers

   • remove sand, rocks, heavy material

3. pH correction

   • acid - HCl, CO2; base - caustic, lime

During primary treatment of WW what is involved?

Sedimentation

• rectangular/circular flow settling tanks with plates or tubes

• may employ coagulation and flocculation to enhance particulate removal

Removal of SS > ~ 1μm

Dissolved air flotation

• rectangular flotation tanks with skimmers

• may employ coagulation and flocculation to enhance particulate removal

removal of SS with poor settling characteristics

During secondary treatment of WW what is involved?

Biological treatment

microorganisms convert organic (& inorganic) wastes to harmless end products

2 types: aerobic (O2 present) and anaerobic (O2 absent)

Main processes:

• activated sludge

• oxidation ditches

• anaerobic digestion

• tricking filters

• wetlands

• lagoons/ponds

What are the key features of sequencing batch reactors (SBR)?

• can be operated as aerobic or anaerobic systems

• provide similar COD removal in both modes

• can tolerate shock loads (e.g., variable WW strength 0:25:1 to 5:1 COD:BOD)

• generate high volatile suspended solids concentrations in sludge

what are the main advantages of SBRs for WWW treatment?

• single reactor handles equalisation, clarification and biological treatment

• high operating flexibility and control

• small footprint (space efficient)

• capital cost savings due to integrated design

What are the main disadvantages of SBRs?

• require high operator skill - timers and control systems

• high maintenance needs

• risk of floating or settled solids being dishcharged during draw/decant phases

• risk of aerator plugging

• may need additional flow equalisation after SBR

what are the key operational features of membrane bioreactors?

• adjustable solids residence time

• can be used in both aerobic and anaerobic modes

• allow for thigh control over biological treatment conditions

• submerged mode is generally preferred due to lower fouling rates

what are the main challenges or problems associated with MBRs?

• membrane fouling biggest issue

  • caused by slime polymers in supernatant

  • capsule polymers around bacteria promote flocculation and fouling

• granulation of cells is poorly understood

• SRT (solids retention time - average amount of time that solid particles (like microorganisms) spend in the treatment system), particle size, SS, low food-to-microorganism ratios

How can filterability be assessed in MBR systems?

• filterability is a key performance factor

• measured by analysing EPS - extractable polymer substances

• EPS is primarily composed of proteins and polysaccharides

What is involved in anaerobic digestion?

Complex process

• results in breakdown of organics : harmless end products CH4 and CO2

• production line of microorganisms

• sumarrised as:

carbohydrates, fats proteins → volatile fatty acids → CH4, CO2, H2S

needs steady conditions - sensitive to pH, temperature and shock loads

low energy use

What are the operating modes of anaerobic digestion?

1. conventional

   • continuous or intermittent feed

   • no solids separation

   • retention time ~ 30 days

2. anaerobic contact

   • separation and re-circulation of seed organism

   • retention time reduced to 6-12 hrs

   • CH4 production = 0.4 m3 gas/kg COD removed

During advanced/tertiary treatment of WW what is involved?

Biological nutrient removal

microorganisms used to remove N and P by combination of aerobic, anoxic and anaerobic treatment processes

• N removed as gaseous N2

• P removed as M/O biomass

• N and P responsible for eutrophication and algal blooms in receiving waters

• treatment steps may be separate or combined

• BNR may also be combined with secondary treatment

What processes (during advanced/tertiary treatment) can be used in the removal of N from WW?

• breakpoint chlorination → NH3 removal (ammonia)

• chemical coagulation → organic N removal

• ion exchange → NH3/nitrate removal

• filtration → organic N /nitrate removal

• air stripping → NH3 removal (ammonia)

• electrodialysis → NH3/organic N/nitrate removal

• reverse osmosis → NH3/organic N/nitrate removal

What processes (during advanced/tertiary treatment) can be used in the removal of P from WW?

Lime or alum precipitation with sedimentation and filtration

when is chemical/physical treatment used in WWW management, and what does it achieve?

• used when re-use or restrictive discharge standards must be met

• involves a combination of chemical and physical methods

• provides water suitable for:

  • re-use applications

  • discharges with strict quality requirements

• goes beyond what secondary and nutrient removal can achieve

During post treatment of WW what is involved?

Disinfection

• chlorine

• chloramines

• hydrogen peroxide

• chlorine dioxide

• ozone

• ultraviolet light

During sludge disposal of treated WWW what is involved?

• concentration

• stabilisation

• conditioning

• dewatering

• final disposal

During concentration in sludge disposal of treated WWW what is involved?

• clarifiers - sedimentation thickening

• flotation thickening

• centrifugal thickening

• gravity belt thickening

During stabilisation in sludge disposal of treated WWW what is involved?

reduce pathogens, eliminate odours and minimise putrefaction (decay/rotting) potential

• anaerobic digestion

• lime stabilisation

• composting

• heat treatment

During conditioning in sludge disposal of treated WWW what is involved?

for dewatering

• chemicals - lime, chlorine

• heat treatment

During disinfection in sludge disposal of treated WWW what is involved?

• chemical - lime chlorine

• incineration

• high energy ionisation

• pasteurisation

During dewatering in sludge disposal of treated WWW what is involved?

• vacuum filtration

• centrifugation

• filter press

• sludge drying bed

• heat drying - fluidised bed

During the final disposal in sludge disposal of treated WWW what is involved?

• incineration - land disposal

• fertiliser

• land disposal

What occurs in the organisation of biomass?

• complex heterogeneous structures

• floc structure and shape determines how successfully the solids phase separate from the liquid phase in secondary clarifier

• ultimately determines success of the process

What are flocs made up of?

• filamentous matrix

• microcolonies of bacteria

• inorganic particules

• all embedded in gel-like exocellular polymeric substances

What are the factors affecting floc formation?

What problems can come from the microbes in WWW?

• odours

• bulking and foaming

• caused by proliferation of filamentous bacteria

• bulking: distinguished by filamentous bacteria extending out from floc surface and participating in interfloc bridging

• foaming: development of a stable foam on the surface of aeration tanks

When does a winery need an EPA licence in SA?

• When >50 tonnes of grapes are processed per year within the Mount Lofty Ranges Water Protection Area (MLRWPA)

• When >500 tonnes of grapes are processed per year else where in SA

When must a winery consult or engage with the EPA? Even if no license is required?

1. during planning and development

   • referral body for planning applications where >50 tonnes will be processed annually (anywhere in SA)

   • wineries can seek informal advice to guide development decisions

2. if not licensed, wineries still have legal duties under:

   • Section 25 of the Environment protection act 1993 - must take all reasonable and practicable measures to prevent or minimise environmental harm

   • Clause 15 of the environment protection (water quality) policy 2015 -

     • must have a wastewater management system

     • system must be effective

     • waste must not enter water bodies or land where it may enter waters - via runoff or seepage e.g.

3. If an environmental incident occurs

   • under Section 83(1) of the act a winery must notify the EPA if there is an incident that causes or threatens environmental harm, including contamination of underground water

4. If complaints are received

   • the EPA may investigate odour, noise, or wastewater discharge complaints even for unlicensed wineries

When must a winery consult or engage with the EPA? Even if no license is required?

1. during planning and development

   • referral body for planning applications where >50 tonnes will be processed annually (anywhere in SA)

   • wineries can seek informal advice to guide development decisions

2. if not licensed, wineries still have legal duties under:

   • Section 25 of the Environment protection act 1993 - must take all reasonable and practicable measures to prevent or minimise environmental harm

   • Clause 15 of the environment protection (water quality) policy 2015 -

     • must have a wastewater management system

     • system must be effective

     • waste must not enter water bodies or land where it may enter waters - via runoff or seepage e.g.

3. If an environmental incident occurs

   • under Section 83(1) of the act a winery must notify the EPA if there is an incident that causes or threatens environmental harm, including contamination of underground water

4. If complaints are received

   • the EPA may investigate odour, noise, or wastewater discharge complaints even for unlicensed wineries

When does a winery need an EPA licence in SA?

• When >50 tonnes of grapes are processed per year within the Mount Lofty Ranges Water Protection Area (MLRWPA)

• When >500 tonnes of grapes are processed per year else where in SA

What are the licensing required for solid waste disposal?

• required for all prescribed activities

• with speical conditions attached e.g., environment improvement programs, codes of practices/guidleines

• works approval - required for any activity that might require a licence, enforcment includes fines and imprisonment

What is included in the solids management hierachy?

TOP Avoid - reduce - recycle - treatment - disposal BOTTOM

with reuse and recovery connected to reduce and treatment

What are the general goals of solid waste management?

• environmental compliance

• health & safety

• community perception (image)

• economics (saving more money)

• triple bottle line (economics, social, environment)

What are the common solid wastes from winemaking?

• Marc

• filter earth

• waste treatment sludge

• barrels/oak chips

• chemicals or reagents

What are the common solid wastes from packaging and then consumption?

• paper/cardboard

• plastics

• glass

• metals

• chemicals and reagents

consumption:

• paper/cardboard

• plastics

• glass

What options are there for the disposal of marc?

Includes stalks, seeds, and skins generated during wine production

waste mmgt:

• landfill

• distillation

• stock feed

• compositing

• vineyard application

• extracts

• energy recovery

In the distillation process of marc disposal what is involved?

In SA by Tarac in Nuriootpa and Berri

they accept marc for free - you have to pay for transport

and recived a return of up to $2/L alcohol

5-10$/tonne locally

20-30$/tone remote regions

In the vineyard application of marc disposal what is involved?

• raw grape marc

  • stock piled 12 mths, or composted first - non composted marc too acidic CANNOT BE USED

• mulched before application

  • higher K & N require mixing with other products like prunings, green wastes, bark manure etc

• application rates of mulched grape marc high as 150m/ha

• potential environmental impacts include:

  • odour, litter & dust

  • soil & surface water contamination with acidic leachates

  • potential fire hazards

  • breeding of vermin, vinegar flies, maggots etc

In the composting of marc disposal what is involved?

• natural biological degradation - rotting

  • caused bacteria and other microbes

  • aerobic or anaerobic conditions can be used

  • aerobic preferred - minimise/avoid potential odour

• involves 3 separate stages

  1. mesophilic stage - several days: T heated to 40 degrees

  2. thermophilic stage - up to a month: T above 40

     • maximum degradation & stabilisation

     • pathogens killed

  3. cooling phase - month to several months

     • reduction in microbial activity, temp decreases

     • evaporative water release

     • pH stabilisation

What are the critical parameters fir aerobic composting?

• C/N rations

  • should be 25-30:1

  • require amendment - e.g., straw, sawdust, recycled compost, fertilisers

• moisture content

  • ideally 50-60%

• temperature

  • optimum 45-55 degrees

• pH

  • to minimise odour potential

What is involved in the Aerated static pile system of aerobic composting?

• grid of aeration piping underlays

• screened waste material & bulking agent and amendments

• aerated using blowers

• composted for 21-28days, cured for 30+

• typical pile heights of 2-2.5 m

What is involved in the windrow system of aerobic composting?

• waste material & bulking agent

• piles 20-100m long

• typical pile heights of 1-4 m

• regular turning and mixing achieves aeration
  composting period 21-28 days

what is industry practice in terms of composting?

• composting may be on site or contracted out

  on site composting may involved strict regulations, especially buffer distance over 500m

• licensed companies e.g., peats soil and garden supplie, jeffries garden soils

• typical processing costs $10-15/m3 + freight

In the landfill disposal of marc disposal what is involved?

• may be on/off site

  • onsite strictly regulated

  • time consuming + difficult approval processes

  • long-term management

• usually contracted out

• costs $10-25/t + freight

In the stock feed of marc disposal what is involved?

Marc can be used as animal feed supplement or replacement

as for feed sources it comes in different options

DM (~50%) - dry matter - higher better, lower freight costs

CP (~13%) - crude protein - total crude protein in feed - no account for proteins digestibility or degradability

ADF (~61%) acid detergent fibre - as % increases, digestibility of feed decreases, measures cellulose and lignin content, ruminants - low utilisation of cellulose and lignin indigestible, for alternative roughages ADF indicates proteins digestibility

ME (~6%) metabolisable energy - measure of energy in feed, >7 best

In extracts during marc disposal what is involved?

New & improving area

GrapEx - Tarac - making:

• wine additive - enhance colour and palate structure

• involves counter current extraction from marc concentration ands filtration

Vinlif

• nutraceutical product - similar process to GrapEx

other example

• grape seed oil production

In energy recovery during marc disposal what is involved?

• biomass utilisation

  • transforms organic matter into energy

  • classified as renewable energy

  • technologies:

    • anaerobic digestion → methane + sludge

    • incineration → heat

    • gasification → syngas

    • pyrolysis → combustable gas + liquid hydrocarbons

  • energy

    • = $40 per megawatt-hour plus carbon credits

What is filter earth used for?

• wine clarification processes

  • bentonite, diatomaceous earth or/and perlite

• what are the common approaches of filter earth disposal?

  • tartrate recovery - performed at Tarac

  • disposal with marc

  • landfill

  • other

In the treatment of waste sludge, what are the methods used?

• from liquid effluent treatment - contains organic and inorgainc matter e.g., filter earth

• waste management methods?

  • concentration

  • stabilisation

  • conditioning

  • disinfection

  • dewatering

  • final disposal

What are the common disposal practices for contaminated timber?

• stockpiling on vineyard sites

• recycling for landscaping

• land filling

steel and plastic posts as replacement

Why can treatment processes widely vary in design?

• wastewater composition and volume

• treated wastewater quality requirements

• new and improved technologies

• variety of available processes

• scale

• chemical and resource availability

• designers opinion and bias

What are the key drivers of treatment options for wastewater?

• the end use of winery wastewater - most important

all treatment options have strengths and limitations

in choosing treatment system - must minimise capital costs, operating costs and make system as automated and robust as possible

must be fit for purpose

r

r

r

r

Why might you characterise wastewater?

• design treatment plan

• monitor and control operations

• meet legal requirements

• detect long-term trends

What sort of things are being tested in gross pollution measures?

BOD, COD, grease, suspended solids, NH3

What sort of things are being tested for aesthetic appeal?

Colour, turbidity, taste, odour

What sort of tests can be done for the presents microbiological behaviour?

indicator organisms

What sort of things are being tested in tests for toxins?

pesticides, heavy metals, radioactivity

What sort of things are being tested in test for health-risk materials?

fluoride, nitrate