A-Level Politics: Liberalism

Origins of Liberalism

-Feudalism to capitalism. As farming becomes more efficient, people become more mobile, move to towns start selling services to highest paying employer. This created the growth of merchant and the middle class.

Now, people have to buy life essentials on an open market, which caused the decline of communities and social obligations. Instead, people considered themselves as individuals.

-Reformation: The reducing authority of church. Reformers wanted the Bible to be translated, so the INDIVIDUAL could read and interpret its word. They wanted the individual to use their own conscience over the state.

This encouraged control of their own destiny, advocated for greater tolerance for different ways of life and focused more about own individual connection to God.

-Enlightenment: Promoted scientific reason, and secular logic about human nature, society and the state.

Thinkers like Locke argued that the state's authority to govern should come from the people, not God.

The fact that there was increasing literacy rates and the printing press led to the growth of individual freedom, where they should be free from rigid social hierarchies, oppressive beliefs and monarchy to pursue their own self interest.

Core ideas and Principles- Collectivism

Limits are placed on individual freedom in order to pursue the common good. For example, the NHS, which is necessary for the poorest in society.

This is mainly supported by modern liberals, who recognise the necessity for some collectivist measures.

Individualism

Individuals should be left as free as possible to pursue their own self interest. For example, online privacy. The majority of liberals, especially classical liberals, are sceptical of the claim that individual freedom should be sacrificed for the collective common good.

Rationalism

A belief or theory that opinions and actions should be based on reason and knowledge rather than on religious belief or emotional response.

John Locke (1632-1704)

1. English philosopher who wrote "The Second Treatise of Government"

2. Viewed humans as basically rational beings who learn from experience

3. Formulated the theory of natural rights, arguing that people are born with basic rights to "life, liberty, and property"

4. Insisted that governments are formed to protect natural rights

5. Stated that the governed have a right to rebel against rulers who violate natural rights

Foundational Equality

Irrespective of biological or social characteristics, we are all born with equal moral worth. We share a common humanity that makes our lives equally valuable. We are all born equally deserving of respect and dignity, all possessing natural rights.

Natural Rights

Legal rights bestowed by the government, that belong to all people from birth by being human.

Formal equality is the liberal idea that all people should have the same legal and political rights in society.

Tolerance

If Locke wanted others to respect his right to life, liberty and properties, he had to respect theirs. This included tolerating other people's religious views, and allowing other rational individuals to make their own choices. Deemed necessary to distinguish state and religion.

Limited Government

In order to protect our rights from the state, liberals wanted:

-Constitutions that separated power into multiple branches and establish clear checks and balances.

-An independent and neutral judiciary that could uphold the rule of law.

-Bill of Rights in order to entrench our fundamental rights.

Social Contract Theory

Espoused by John Locke. He argued that the legitimate government can only be based on consent. Humans have signed up to a social contract: agreeing to surrender some rights, so that a ruler can protect their remaining ones.

He therefore argued that the legislature is a fiduciary power.

Mechanistic Theory

The theory that the role of the state is to act like a machine, created solely to protect the rights and liberties of individuals.

Classical liberalism

-The political ideology of individual liberty, private property, a competitive market economy, free trade, and limited government.

-It developed in the 18th century alongside the growth of industrial capitalism. The growing middle class wanted to be free to pursue their own self interest.

-For most classical liberals, freedom meant NEGATIVE FREEDOM, which meant freedom FROM outside interference.

Negative freedom is essentially the absence of physical and legal obstacles, and was advocated by John Stuart Mill.

The Harm Principle

The actions of individuals should only be limited to prevent harm to other individuals.

Under this principle, self-regarding actions, where actions do not impact the freedom of others, (free speech, religious worship) it is not justifiable for state interference.

However, regarding actions that clearly limit the freedom of others, like violent behaviour, the state should intervene.

It was espoused by John Stuart Mill, who also criticised the despotic power of husbands over their wives, and promoted utilitarianism.

Utilitarianism

An ethical theory that holds that the best actions are those that bring about the most good.

Bentham argued that laws are justifiable if they promote the greatest amount of good for the greatest number.

Atomistic View

Assumes that each individual in a society stands alone as an independent, self-sufficient unit. The individual is seen as the "atom" of society and therefore the only true object of concern and analysis.

This is held by classical liberals who see society as no more than a collection of self-interested individual people.

It focuses on a more egoistical type of individualism, where the individual is primarily concerned with pursuing their own self-interest and owe little to society.

Classical Liberal views on State and Economy

State:

-Favour a minimal state, consisting of a military for defence, and a police/court system to enforce negative freedom rights.

It is often referred to as a night-watchman state, to enforce property rights rather than provide welfare and public services. This was advocated for by John Locke.

Economy:

-Favour Laissez-Faire economics. Literally means to let people do as they choose. Thus, they favour no state regulations, subsidies and taxes, as they limit negative freedom and undermine the effectiveness of the free market. Argued by Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations.

Smith asserts that there is no need for the state to manage the economy because if individuals are left to pursue their own self-interest, then the economy will become guided by the INVISIBLE HAND. This is a metaphor for the signals that are automatically sent when trading in a free market.

E.g., -----> = 'Send Signals to'

Increased Demand ----> Increase Supplies

Shortages -----> Raise Prices

Unfilled Vacancies -----> Increase Wages

Laissez Faire

Idea that government should play as small a role as possible in economic affairs.

Whilst it produces great inequality, classical liberals argue that the poor will still be better off as the country will become richer, and it is fair to reward talent and hard work, which varies from person to person. This was advocated for by John Locke.

Equality of Opportunity

The idea that each person is guaranteed the same chance to succeed in life.

For classical liberals, Equality of Opportunity means no discrimination, so that talent cannot be prevented from succeeding due to race/sexuality/gender. Instead, they believe in a meritocracy, where jobs/power is awarded on the basis of merit.

Some classical liberals apply social Darwinism to society.

Modern Liberalism

Modern Liberalism was a reaction to the growing inequality and poverty of the 19th and 20th century, and the concern that negative freedom might not be sufficient for the poor to truly be considered free.

Positive Freedom

Whilst negative freedom focuses on the freedom FROM outside interference, and the threat of legal/physical barriers,

positive freedom is the freedom TO develop, grow and fulfil our goals, and may be threatened b poverty, lack of education and inequality.

It is a fundamental belief modern liberalism.

John Stuart Mill is a key link between classical and modern liberalism. Whilst he advocated for egoistical individualism, he also believed that individuals had to be free in order to learn, grow and cultivate individuality.

Developmental Individualism

A contradiction to Egoistical Individualism, Developmental Individualism instead focuses on the extent to which individuals are able to grow and achieve their potential, in common with others in society.

Mill: "brings human beings themselves nearer to the best thing they can be".

Negative Rights v. Positive Rights

Negative Rights are rights that a government may not infringe upon. This includes freedom of speech, religion and the freedom to own property. These were mainly espoused by classical liberal thinkers.

Whereas, positive rights are rights that come from the government's ability to act. This can include the right to education, the right to work and fair pay, and healthcare. These were championed by modern liberal thinkers, who argued that unless such rights were respected, it would be impossible for people to

1. fulfil their potential (self-realisation)

2. choose the direction of their own life (self-determination)

3. exercise self control (self mastery)

Enabling State

Whilst classical liberals championed the idea of a night-watchman state, modern liberals argued that actually, an enabling state is necessary.

An enabling state is one that actively promotes freedom by ensuring that all individuals live and work in the minimum conditions necessary for them to realise their goals and be truly free.

This was first recognised by the liberal government in 1906-11. They introduced the National Insurance Act (1911), Old Age Pensions Act (1908), Education Act (1907), Provision of Meals Act (1906). Seen once again in the Beveridge report post WW2, arguing that 'a starving man is not free'. He could once again become free by expanding education and healthcare.

Keynesian Economics

Theory based on the principles of John Maynard Keynes, stating that government spending should increase during business slumps and be curbed during booms.

This was argued by many modern liberals, which contradicted the classical liberalist belief of Laissez-Faire economics.

Overall then, it is clear that modern liberals hold a far less atomistic view of society than classical liberals. Whilst still valuing the individual, it would be foolish to think that someone can fully develop in complete isolation.

Modern Liberals on Equality

Whilst classical liberals argue that:

Foundational Equality + Formal Equality = Equality of Opportunity,

Modern Liberals have questioned this, asking if the poor really do have this equal and fair chance to compete against the wealthy, and whether state intervention is therefore necessary in order to level the playing field.

E.g., the writings of John Rawls. He argued that it is not enough for citizens to befree and legally equal, instead, society also has to be fair. 'justice as fairness'.

He argues that each person should have equal rights and liberties, but also substantive equality of opportunity, which is different to formal equality of opportunity because this is where those unlucky enough to be born with disadvantages have the same opportunities as those born with advantages. He also advocated for the Difference principle: Any inequality in society must be to benefit the poorest.

How do Liberals view Human Nature?

Individualism:

C: Egoistical Individualism. People are primarily concerned with pursuing their own self-interest and owe little to nothing to society.

M: Developmental Individualism. Focuses on the extent to which all individuals are able to grow and achieve their potential.

Rationalism:

C: Utilitarianism. The most rational laws and actions are those than produce the greatest happiness and pleasure for the greatest number.

M: Higher and lower pleasures. The actions with the most utility are those that enable us to progress and develop our individuality.

Tolerance:

C: Harm Principle. It is not justifiable to interfere with self-regarding actions, even if they are harmful to the individual.

M: Enabling State and Positive Freedom. Individuals might need help in identifying their real interests and pursuing their higher pleasures.

HOWEVER, all Liberals would agree that:

-Humans should be thought of as individuals, each with their own unique abilities and interests.

-All humans are born with equal moral worth and natural rights, which belong to us by being human.

-Optimistic view on Human Nature: all individuals are capable of reason and tolerance. All humans have the capacity to progress and improve

-Tolerance. Other people's religious practises and choices cannot be judged.

How do Liberals view Society?

Individualism

C: Atomistic Society. Society is no more than a collection of self-interested individuals who act on their own interest, not society's.

M: Common Good. Self-realisation is not possible in isolation. Our rights, freedom and growth depends on other people.

Rights and Liberties

C: Negative freedom/rights. Freedom from constraint means that society only exist to limit the outside interference of others.

M: Positive freedom/rights. True freedom is to grow and achieve our goals, which requires others and is impossible to do in isolation.

Equality:

C: Formal equality of opportunity. Jobs/Offices should be open to all individuals and no one should be discriminated against.

M: Fair and Substantive equality of opportunity. Those born with disadvantages should still have the same opportunities as others.

HOWEVER, all Liberals would agree that:

-Individuals are more important than society as a whole, and society should respect the right to liberties belonging to all individuals.

-An equal society. But, this is foundational equality, where everybody has equal moral worth, and also a formal sense, where citizens have equal political and legal rights.

-Equality of Opportunity over Equality of Outcome. An unequal society that rewards those who work hard will be wealthier than a shared one.

How do Liberals view the state?

Limited Government

C: Minimal State. The state should protect negative freedom, negative rights and guarantee formal equality of opportunity.

M: Enabling State. The state should promote positive freedom, positive rights and substantive equality of opportunity.

Individualism

C: Negative Freedom. Welfare and State Intervention makes individuals less self-reliant and more dependent on the state.

M: Positive Freedom. If individuals are to be truly self-reliant, the state must ensure that they live in enabling conditions.

Liberal Democracy

C: Negative rights. Concerned by majoritarianism, and the threat that extending the franchise posed to property rights.

M: Developmental individualism. All individuals should engage in political debate, so that they can learn and express their views.

HOWEVER, all Liberals would agree that:

-The state is necessary to protect the individual rights and liberties from the threat of other people. However, they are also aware of the threat of big government, so they all agree on a limited form of government, with constitutional limits.

-They all believe that individual interests should take priority over the interests of the state. They agree that legitimate government requires consent.

How do Liberals view the Economy?

Capitalism:

C: Laissez-faire economics. If individuals are left to pursue self-interest, then the market will be efficiently guided by an invisible hand.

M: Keynesian economics. The government should manage demand to keep unemployment low and promote freedom.

Private Property:

C: Negative rights. Property is a natural right, and the private ownership of land, and factories will enrich the entire nation.

M: Positive rights. Redistribution is necessary to promote positive freedom and substantive equality of opportunity.

Taxation:

C: Taxation should be minimal. It punishes hard work and success and should only be used to fund a minimal, night-watchman state.

M: Society contributes much to wealth creation. Taxation isn't redistribution, it is society taking its fair share for its contribution.

HOWEVER, all Liberals would agree that:

-Capitalism. They developed alongside each other, and therefore exist somewhat together.

-Private Property. They want people to establish their own identity as individuals. The freedom to buy is a way of expressing uniqueness and individualism

-Agree that Taxation should be kept relatively low, so as not to discourage hard work or limit the rewards that individuals have earned for their success.

What they disagree on, however, is the form that Capitalism should take, and what should be done about the inequality that it produces.

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

-Wollstonecraft's most important publication, A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792).

-Wollstonecraft had a positive view of human nature, viewing men and women as equally rational. This truth was ignored by the state and society as women were denied formal equality under the law, which gave them considerably fewer rights than men within society.

-All citizens should enjoy equality under the law and be free from discrimination. Wollstonecraft campaigned for a change in the law to give women more rights in terms of employment and property ownership, as well as retaining legal freedoms when they were married - all areas of difficulty for women when she was writing.

-Wollstonecraft supported formal equality and the social contract of Locke.

She viewed the divine rights of kings as an

"absurdity' and was a vocal supporter of republicanism

Betty Friedan (1921-2006)

Betty Friedan's ideas are influenced by both classical liberalism (the importance of individualism) and modern liberalism (the enabling state) for how woman can achieve equality of opportunity with men. Her key work is The Feminine Mystique (1963).

Friedan's main ideas

Friedan argued strongly for individual freedom. In particular, she believed that individuals should be free to be able to achieve their potential.

She believed that women were the principal victims of a lack of opportunity and restricted opportunities within society because of patriarchal attitudes.

Friedan was influenced by classical liberalism in her belief that if the state allowed equality of opportunity then women's individual efforts could achieve the successful combination.

But, Friedan was also influenced by the ideas of modern liberalism and, like Rawls, she felt that if utilised properly an enabling state could assist women in being free.

The state was the vehicle with which to counter dominant patriarchal values that discriminate against women, and to ensure foundational equality and equality of opportunity in both society and the economy. This would include state benefits for single, divorced or widowed mothers.

John Rawls (1921-2002)

His key work is A Theory of Justice (1971).

=Rawls' key idea was 'justice and fairness', and he believed that everyone would agree to an enabling state (and positive freedom) if they were in a position of ignorance.

-An enabling state would provide a welfare state. Rawls* theory neatly implies that classical liberals (under a hypothetical veil of ignorance) would choose an interventionary state to guarantee equality of opportunity, rather than a limited state that did not.

-Rawls added the need for social and economic equality. He argued that a just society must provide equality of opportunity for everyone and this could only be achieved by the state taking a larger role within society. This would be funded from progressive taxation.

Robert Nozick argued that Rawls' ideas were a betrayal of liberalism and that Rawls' demands for an interventionary state had more in common with socialism than liberalism.

John Locke (1632-1704)

Locke is seen as one of the principal thinkers of classical liberalism, with his key work being Two Treatises of Government (1689).

The state was not created by God, nor is the monarchy legitimised by the divine right of kings'. Rather the state is created via a social contract between the rulers and the ruled: the principle of government by consent.

Locke argued that within the state of nature the human race was underpinned by 'natural laws', 'natural liberties' and 'natural rights'. The freedoms were extremely desirable and so the state must not encroach on them.

The state should be limited in how it interferes in society and economy. This limited government would ensure that the state always represented the interests of the governed and always required their ongoing consent.

The state should be limited under the principle of constitutionalism with a clear separation of powers to prevent an abuse of power. There should also be tolerance.

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

His key work is On Liberty (1859).

Mill argued for restraint by the state, leaving individuals to be free to take whatever actions they judged fit, provided this did not harm others. This latter point became known as the harm principle.

Mill argued that the state should be tolerant of diverse opinions.

Mill believed that individual liberty was essential for the development of the individual in terms of creativity, culture and intellect. If individuals were able to develop their in individualism, the whole of society would benefit.

He opposed popular democracy, where the interests of the few could be crushed by the interests of the majority. As an alternative, he supported the idea of representative democracy with limited government.

Although Mill argued that government should interfere as little as possible in society and the economy, he later changed his views, arguing that the state must intervene in order to help individuals to attain developmental individualism.