Intro to Human Development [ PSYC2101 ]

Paradox of Progress

despite our progress, we are not healthier nor happier

The abundance of life choices is increasing rapidly which can cause…

unexpected costs and choice overload

Because modern technology causes an economic abundance, there is a

possession overload

How can you explain the paradox of progress?

• mental demands of modern life now complex and confusing

• obsession w/ self-improvement undermines sense of security and satisfaction w/ one’s identity

• overwhelmed by information overload

• more time w/ technology & less time w/ ppl results in intimacy deficit

• affluenza undermines physical health and emotional well-being

What are the 3 basic challenges of modern life?

1. sense of purpose

2. significance

3. coherence

Can anyone write a self-help book?

yes

Ineffective self-help books…

• not based on solid, scientific research

• do not provide explicit directions for changing behavior

• encourage a narcissistic approach to life

Psychobabble

messages too vague to be useful in self-help books
ex. be your best you!

Effective self-help books…

• realistic, don’t promise too much change too soon

• by authors w/ good credentials

• have basis in theory/research

• provide detailed directions for altering behavior

• focus on a particular kind of problem or behavior

Psychology

the science that studies behavior and the physiological and mental processes that underlie it

What do professions in psychology do?

applies knowledge of science to practical problems

ex. behavioral and clinical psychology

Behavior

measurable response or activity, can be observable physically but also is mental

Clinical psychology

branch of psychology concerned w/ diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems & disorders

Adjustment

psychological processes thru which ppl manage or cope w/ demands & challenges of everyday life

With a scientific approach, psychology aims to…

explain behavior empirically

• dependent on experimental research using scientific method

Empiricism

premise that knowledge should be acquired thru observation

• conclusions are based on systemic observation rather than speculation, traditional beliefs, or common sense

Experiment

investigators manipulate an independent variable under controlled conditions & observe whether any changes occur in a dependent variable

Independent variable

condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable; the manipulated variable

Dependent variable

variable that is thought to be affected by the manipulation of the independent variable

Experimental group

subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable

Control group

subjects who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group

Correlation

exists when 2 variables are related to eachother

Correlation coefficient

numerical index of the degree of relationship that exist b/t 2 variables

• provides 2 pieces of info

  • strength of relation

  • direction of relation (+/-)

• ranges from 0 to +1.00 (direct)

• also ranges from 0 to -1.00 (indirect)

  • coefficients near 0 have no association b/t variables

Positive correlation

indicates that two variables covary in the same direction

Negative correlation

indicates that two variables covary in the opposite direction

Correlations do not have to be related at all

true

Naturalistic observation

careful observation of behavior without intervening with subjects

Case studies

in-depth investigation of individual participants

Surveys

structured questionnaires designed to solicit information about aspects of participants’ behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs

• cooperation with surveys appears to have declined in recent decades due to concerns about privacy and identity theft

Can you determine cause and effect from correlations alone?

No, you cannot (CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION!)

Disadvantage of correlations

only tell us that two variables are related, not how the two variables are related

List the unimportant things that relate to happiness

• money – the correlation between income and happiness is very weak in the U.S. (between .12 and .20)

• age – unrelated to global estimates of happiness

• gender – little impact on subjective well-being

• parenthood – good and bad aspects of parenthood balance each
  other out

• intelligence – no association between IQ and happiness

• physical attractiveness – attractive people enjoy many
  advantages in society, but relationship with happiness is very
  weak

What is somewhat important in relation to happiness?

• health and happiness have positive correlation of .32

• social relations – people satisfied with their friendships and
  socially active report above-average levels of happiness

• religious beliefs – people with sincere religious convictions more
  likely to be happy

• culture – more affluent nations are more likely to be happy

What is most important to the relation of happiness?

• relationship satisfaction – for men and women across cultures, married people are happier than people who are single or divorced

• work – job satisfaction is strongly related to happiness

• genetics and personality

  • extraversion is a strong predictor of happiness

  • neuroticism is negatively correlated with happiness

  • genetic predispositions account for a substantial portion of the variance in
    happiness

What is more important than objective measures in happiness?

the subjective feeling of happiness

How is happiness relative?

• we evaluate our happiness relative to what others around us have

• we evaluate our happiness relative to our own expectations

How do people adapt to their own circumstances in happiness?

• happiness affected by hedonic adaptation

• occurs when the mental scale that people use to judge the pleasantness/unpleasantness of their experiences shifts so that their neutral point, or baseline for comparison, is changed

What Is Personality?

• Personality is an individual’s unique constellation of
  consistent behavioral traits

• A personality trait is “a durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations.

What is the big 5?

1. extraversion

2. neuroticism

3. openness to experience

4. agreeableness

5. conscientiousness

Psychodynamic theories

focus on unconscious mental forces that shape our personalities; include a variety of theoretical models derived from the work of Sigmund Freud

3 Well-known psychodynamic theorists

1. Freud

2. Jung

3. Adler

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality

1. Personality is governed by unconscious forces that we cannot control

2. Childhood experiences play a significant role in determining adult personality

3. Personalities are shaped by the manner in which individuals cope with sexual urges

Freud’s Structural Theory (divided into 3 structures)

1. The id is “the primitive, instinctive component of personality that operates according to the pleasure principle.”

2. The ego is “the decision-making component of personality that operates according to the reality principle.

3. The superego is “the moral component of personality that incorporates social standards about what represents right and wrong.”

Freud’s Theory of the Conscious and Unconscious

• The id, ego, and superego are distributed across three layers of awareness:

1. The conscious – material “one is aware of at a particular point in time.”

2. The preconscious – “material just beneath the surface of awareness that can be easily retrieved.”

3. The unconscious – material “well below the surface of conscious awareness but that nonetheless exerts great influence on one’s behavior.”

What is the conflict in Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory?

• Freud believed that behavior is the result of ongoing internal conflict among the id, ego, and superego

• Conflicts stemming from sexual and aggressive urges are especially significant

• Such conflicts arouse anxiety, so we use defense mechanisms – “largely unconscious reactions that protect a person from painful emotions such as anxiety and guilt.

Examples of recent evidence for psychoanalytic theory

• Reliance on defense mechanisms increases when people experience stress or a threat to their sense of self

• Defense mechanisms serve a protective function by
  shielding individuals from emotional distress

  • Excessive dependence on defenses is associated with impairments in mental health (Cramer, 2015)

• Repressors have an impoverished memory for events that are likely to trigger unpleasant emotions (Alston et al., 2013)

Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality Development

• Freud believed that the basic elements of adult personality are in place by age 5 and result from the outcome of five psychosexual stages

• In each stage, children must cope with distinct immature sexual urges that influence adult personality

• Fixation results if the child fails to move forward from one stage to another and is usually caused by excessive gratification or excessive frustration of needs at a particular stage

Jung’s Analytical Psychology

• focused on the role of the unconscious

• argued that the unconscious is comprised of two layers

1. The personal unconscious, which is similar to Freud’s
   unconscious layer

2. The collective unconscious, “a storehouse of latent memory traces inherited from people’s ancestral past that is shared with the entire human race.”

Jung’s Analytical Psychology: Collective Unconscious

• The collective unconscious does not contain memories of distinct, personal experiences

• Rather, it contains archetypes – “emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal meaning.

  • These archetypal images and ideas show up frequently in
    dreams and are often manifested in a culture’s use of symbols in art, literature, and religion

Adler’s Individual Psychology

• Believed that our most important drive is not sexuality, but our striving for superiority

• Stated that we use compensation — “efforts to overcome imagined or real inferiorities by developing one’s abilities.”

• If we are unsuccessful, we may develop an inferiority
  complex — “exaggerated feelings of weakness and
  inadequacy.”

• Some people may overcompensate for perceived
  inferiorities.

An Application of Adler’s Individual Psychology

• Adler’s theory has been used to analyze the tragic life of Marilyn Monroe (Ansbacher, 1970)

• During her childhood, Monroe suffered from parental neglect that left her with feelings of inferiority

  • Her inferiority feelings led her to overcompensate by flaunting her beauty, marrying celebrities, keeping film crews waiting for hours, and seeking the adoration of her fans

Modern Dynamic Personality Theories: Personality Organization

1. healthy

2. neurotic

3. borderline

4. psychotic

Modern Dynamic Personality Theories: Personality Style/Syndromes

depressive, dependent, anxious-avoidant & phobic, obsessive compulsive, schizoid, somatizing, hysteric-histrionic, narcissistic, paranoid, psychopathic, sadistic, borderline

Psychodynamic theories contributed many important insights such as…

• Unconscious forces can influence behavior.

• Internal conflict may play a key role in psychological distress

• Early childhood experiences can influence adult personality

• People do rely on defense mechanisms to reduce unpleasant emotions

Psychodynamic theory criticisms include…

• Poor testability – too vague, difficult to measure

• Depend too heavily on clinical case studies

• Many central hypotheses have been challenged by empirical evidence

• Male-centered, even sexist, view of personality

Behaviorism (Learning Theory)

“a theoretical orientation based on the
premise that scientific psychology should study
observable behavior.”

How do behavioral theorists view personality?

• As a collection of response tendencies that are tied to various stimulus situations

• They focus on personality development, and how
  children’s response tendencies are shaped by classical
  conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational
  learning

Pavlov’s classical conditioning

a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus

What conditioning can be associated with how people acquire
particular emotional responses such as anxiety or phobias?

classical conditioning

Extinction

the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency

Skinner’s operant conditioning

a form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences; organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed by favorable consequences— organisms tend not to repeat those responses that are followed by neutral or unfavorable consequences

Positive reinforcement

occurs when a response is strengthened (increases in frequency) because it is followed by the arrival of a pleasant stimulus

Negative reinforcement

occurs when a response is strengthened (increases in frequency) because it is followed by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus

Punishment

occurs when a response is weakened (decreases in frequency) because it is followed by the arrival of an unpleasant stimulus

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

Stressed the importance of self-efficacy – “one’s belief about one’s ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes.”

• High self-efficacy is associated with confidence, whereas
  low self-efficacy creates doubt in one’s abilities

• Perceptions of self-efficacy can influence which
  challenges people tackle and how well they perform

Behavioral perspectives have been credited for…

• Being rooted in empirical research rather than clinical intuition

• Providing the most thorough account of why people are only moderately consistent in their behavior

Behavioral perspectives have been criticized for…

• Not being very behavioral anymore (with the rise of Social Cognitive Theory)

• Being overly dependent on animal research

Humanism

a theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their free will and their potential for personal growth

Humanistic Theories

• Humans have an innate drive toward personal growth

• Humans exercise free will over their actions; they are not
  pawns of their environment

• Humans are conscious and rational beings who aren’t
  dominated by unconscious needs

Rogers’s Person-Centered Theory

Personality contains only one construct, the self, or self-concept – “a collection of beliefs about one’s own nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior.”

• If our ideas about ourselves match our actual experiences,
  our self-concept is congruent with reality

  • However, if our ideas about ourselves do not match reality, this disparity is called incongruence, which undermines our well-being

Rogers’s PCT: Self-Concept and Development

All humans have a need for affection, love, and acceptance, and experiences early in life are key.

• If parents make their affection conditional (given only if the
  child’s behavior meets their expectations), children do not feel worthy of love and develop an incongruent self-concept

• If parents give affection unconditionally, children feel worthy
  of affection no matter what and develop congruent self-
  concepts

According to Rogers, when our self-concept is threatened…

it creates anxiety

Individuals with highly incongruent self-concepts, therefore, experience…

more recurrent anxiety

Maslow’s Theory of Self-Actualization

Human motives are organized into a hierarchy of needs – “a systematic arrangement of needs, according to priority, in which basic needs must be met before less basic needs are aroused.”

• Humans have an innate drive toward personal growth and the highest need is the need for self-actualization – the fulfillment of one’s potential.

Maslow called people with extremely healthy
personalities “self-actualizing persons” because of their…

commitment to continued personal growth

Characteristics of self-actualizing people

1. Accurately tuned in to reality

2. Open, spontaneous, appreciative

3. Enjoy rewarding relationships

4. Thrive on their work and enjoy their sense of humor

5. Have more “peak experiences”

6. Balanced personality

Humanistic theory is credited with:

• Identifying the self- concept as a key element of personality

• Highlighting the importance of psychological health

• Laying the foundation for positive psychology

Humanistic theory is criticized for:

• Poor testability

• An unrealistic view of human nature

  • an overly positive view on humanism

• Inadequate evidence

  • not properly tested

Biological Perspectives: Eysenck’s Theory

• Personality as a hierarchy of traits

• Suggests that personality is a function of genetic
  differences in “conditionability.”

• Special interest in explaining variations in extraversion-introversion

  • Proposed that introverts are more easily aroused by events, which make them more easily conditioned than extraverts

Recent Research in Behavioral Genetics

support for genetic influence on personality provided by twin studies, in which researchers assess hereditary influence by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins on a trait

Heritability ratio

an estimate of the proportion of trait variability in a population that is determined by variations in genetic inheritance

Evolutionary Psychology

examines behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive value for members of a species over the course of many generations

David Buss (1991, 1995)

maintains that the Big Five traits are present across a variety of cultures because they had significant adaptive value for humans

Daniel Nettle (2006)

argues that the traits themselves are products of evolution that were adaptive in ancestral environments.

Biological perspective has been criticized on the following grounds:

• There are statistical problems with the estimation of
  hereditary influence.

• Problems with hindsight bias, the common tendency to mold one’s interpretation of the past to fit how events actually turned out

Narcissism

a personality trait marked by an inflated sense of importance, a need for attention and admiration, and a sense of entitlement

• Studies have shown that narcissists have highly positive but easily threatened self-concepts, and their behavior is driven by a need to maintain their fragile self-esteem.

Terror Management Theory is based on the following assumptions:

1. Human cognition is unique in that it allows us to be aware of our own mortality

2. This creates great anxiety, which can be reduced by cultural worldviews that promote self-esteem and faith

3. These constructs give people a sense of order, context, and meaning

4. Reminding people of their mortality (mortality salience) leads to increased self-esteem as an anxiety buffer

Individualism

involves putting personal goals ahead of group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group memberships

Collectivism

involves putting group goals ahead of personal goals and defining one’s identity in terms of the groups to which one belongs

Individualism and collectivism foster cultural disparities
in self-enhancement, which involves…

Focusing on positive feedback from others, exaggerating one’s strengths, and seeing oneself as above average

• These tendencies tend to be pervasive in individualistic
  cultures but less common in collectivist cultures, where
  the norm is to reflect on one’s shortcomings

Holier than thou phenomenon

Tendency for people to claim that they are more likely to engage in socially desirable behaviors than their peers are

• Balcetis and colleagues (2008) concluded that
  collectivism may promote greater self-insight than
  individualism, at least when people contemplate
  whether they will engage in socially desirable behaviors

Stress

any circumstances that threaten or are perceived to threaten one’s well-being and thereby tax one’s coping abilities; complex concept; common, everyday event; major and minor problems can cause stress; stressful events can have a cumulative or additive impact

Is stress subjective or objective?

subjective

Primary appraisal of stress

initial evaluation of the relevance, level of threat, and degree of stress the event brings

Secondary appraisal

an evaluation of our ability to cope

Can stress be embedded within an environment?

yes

Ambient stress

chronic negative conditions embedded in the environment

Types of environmental stress

• excessive noise

• crowding

• poverty (biggest stressor)

  • associated w/ elevated stress hormones

Stress is influenced by… (starts with c)

culture

Cultural stressors

• Racial discrimination negatively affects the mental health and well-being for targets of racism

• For immigrants, acculturation is a major source of stress
  related to reduced well-being