a diverse political landscape: contemporary china

split CCP and ROC

-after 1949

-ccp: mainland

-roc: taiwan

four types of top level administrative units

1) provinces: 23 —> taiwan too, each has a capital

2) autonomous regions: 5 → ethnic minority groups

3) municipalities: 4 —> major cities that report directly to the central government

4) special administrative regions:

further subdivisions

-regions and districts: provinces and autonomous regions

-city/village level units: based on the proportion of urban hukou

-peoples communes: were replaced by cities, villages and rural units

additional administrative and development initiatives

-special economic zones: unique economic priveleges to attract investment

-jing jin ji megalopolis: integrates beijing, tianjin, hebei province to boost northern chinas economy and balance shanghai dominance

-xiong an new district: a planned city near baoding, intended to become a second capital by relocating some government functions there

historical development institutes of government in prc

-after CCP took over: china was divided in six military administrative regions, reflecting the military roots of the regime

-peoples liberation army: this played a key role early on, the prc was born through military victory rather than a purely social revolution

-1951: civilian governance began to replace military control in most areas, aligning with leninist principles: the party dominates the army

-military regions were abolished in 1954-1955

key political campaigns

-three anti campaign: targeted corruption among cadres

-five anti campaign: targeted economic crimes like bribery, fraud, misuse of state assets

=> helped consolidate CCP control and lay groundwork for urban focused development and land reform

state structure and constitution

-1954 constitution was modeled on the soviet unions, established the peoples congress system

-danwei system: foundation for organizing social and economic life

-state was structured in three key components: communist party, the government, the army

evolution post-mao

-under mao, the party, government, army were deeply intertwined

-since 1977: military influence in politics has declined significantly: 57 percent of politbureau members had a military background in 1977, in 1992 it was just 10 percent, in 2012 just 2 out of 25

-socialism lost relevance during market reforms, nationalism + material prosperity + religion filled the gap.

key political offices today

-president of the prc

-prime minister

-president of the peoples congress

-chairman of the central military commission

=> roles often overlap, Xi Jinping holds all major positions

leadership timeline

mao zedong (1949-1976)

deng xiaoping (1980s)

jiang zemin, hu jintao, xi jinping

CPPCC 1949 conference

-CPPCC agreement between CCP and GMD to discuss political reforms => double ten agreement , it recognized GMD as legal government and CCP as legal opposition

-1949: CPPCC/xieyi establishes PRC with CCP as sole political party with executive power

-a common program was approved, which served as the constitution

=> cppcc was abolished during the cultural revolution but reinstated in 1978, functions as an advisory committee, convenes once a year, includes representatives from ccp, eight democratic parties and independent politicians

ccp origin

-founded in 1921 by intellectuals and journalists in shanghai and beijing with assistance from comintern agents

-roots back to the May Fourth movement: nationalist resistance against the treaty of versailles

ccp membership and structure

-largest political party globally => 100 million members (6 percent of chinas population)

-4 tiered vertical structure: central, provincial/municipal, district and local

-8 mill members serve as functionaries

-4 mill at central government level

-4 mill spread across various levels and institutions

-highest authority at each level: party secretaries

-party cadre are integrated into village committees, intermediaries between local population and higher echelons

membership requirements

-at least 18 years old

-no criminal record

-supported by two existing party members

-new members undergo a one year probationary perdiod

ccp ideology

-discipline and functioning reveal influences from confucian principles:

1) importance of morality and virtue (de)

2) emphasis on hierarchy

3) goal of a socially stable and unified state

4) selection of the state elite

5) a single leading ideology for the administration, taught through schooling

=> democratic centralism (leninist concept), members can debate issues before the central leadership makes a final decision, once a decision is reached all members adhere to the party line, ccp acts as a vanguard of the proletariat

climbing ccp hierarchy

-first delegated from their locality to the district level

-then elected as representatives at the provincial level

-finally elected to the national level => becoming members of national congress of ccp, approx. 3.2 million representatives of congresses at various state levels

-private entrepreneurs have been permitted to join the ccp

central organs of the ccp

-national congress of the ccp:

-central committee of the ccp (cccp):

-politburo of the ccccp:

national congress of the ccp

-elected or five year terms

-roles: elects central committee, amend party constitution (for example: incorporating DXP theory, Jiang Zemin Three Represents, Xi Jinping thought)

central committee of the ccp (ccccp)

-elected for five year terms

-primary role: elect politburo and standing committee

-oversees ccp affiliated organizations and publishes renmin ribao

-they work in numerous departments covering areas like organization, propaganda, international relations, justice, social security, police research

politburo of the ccccp

-highest party organ until 1956, now its the standing committee

-convenes monthly with 24 members, standing committee is 7 members

politburo standing committee of the ccp

-highest level of political leadership

-convenes weekly to deliberate major policy decisions

-20th politburo standing committee: 7 members => only individuals loyal to Xi Jinping

leadership of ccp

-chairmen of standing committee = president of the ccp

key organizations connected to the ccp

-central military commission: controls the links between peoples liberation army and ccp: reports directly to the politburo, meaning that chinas army is led by the ccp not the parliament or government

-central advisory commission: advisory body to the ccccp, higher power than politburo standing committee

-central commission for discpline inspection: investigating and preventing malpractices and corruption among party members

-communist youth league of china: reports to central committee of ccp, members are between 14 and 28 years old

consolidation of power ccp

-leninist model: ccp establishes party cells in all local units (workplaces, schools, neighborhoods, rural communities) => support for the party was essential for individual mobility, material benefits and social status.

-department of organization was responsible for coordinating party staff, also appointment of ministers, vice ministers, university heads…

cultural revolution and reforms

-partys functioning ceased between 1967 and 1969 during the cultural revolution => cultural revolution group took a leading role

-reforms: under Deng Xiaoping —> limiting power of department of organization and the ministry of personnel to provincial level (not district level anymore), managers were granted greater autonomy in decision making

reassertion of party control

-xi jinping: party secretaries have been reinstalled in businesses, signaling a tightening grip

-local elections have been abolished

other organizations connected to ccp

-all-china students federation: formed by the communist youth league

-all china federation of trade unions: founded in 1925, this organization unites local and national industry unions, significant body of representing workers interests

-all china womens federation: primary focus on emancipation of women

-all china federation for industry and commerce: governmental chamber of commerce, activelt promoting foreign trade

-all china federation for returned overseas chinese: supports chinese people who have returned from overseas

other political parties in the PRC

-chinese party for cadres and workers

-chinese peasants and workers democratic party

-society for third september

-china democratic national construction association

…..

unrecognized parties: democract party of china, new democracy party of china, turkestan islamic party

highest legislative body in PRC = NPC

-national peoples congress (1949): grew in power but diminished in power during XJP era, because more centralized power in CCP

-convenes anually for two weeks, elected for a five year term, also have a standing committee

-they elect state president and vice president, chairman of central military commission, chairman of the higher court and the peoples procuratorate, state council

-can ammend constitution or laws

-approve state budget, make decisions on the administrative structure of the state, declare state of war,

local elections

-members are elected for a three year term

-during hu jintao era, free and competitive elections at village level was possible, abolished in Xi JInping era

vice president since 2023

-Han zheng

prc constitutions

-there have been 4

-the npc can approve and amend these (and other laws)

-latest amendment to the constitution: 2018 => establishing national supervisory commission (extending ccp powers), addition of hu jintaos scientific outlook on development and xi jinping thought, removal of term limits for president and vice president

executive powers: state council and ministries

-state council: headed by premier and assisted by four vice premiers => current premier Li Qiang, executive vice = ding xuexiang

-ministries are assisted by state councils

evolution of government structure

-1982: number of ministries and commissions reduced

-further reductions in 1998

-now: 21 ministries, 3 state commissions, the peoples bank and audit office (they hold ministerial status)

xitong/functional systems

-during maoist period, they were established to ensure coordination across different organizations, they exist between agriculture and forestry, industry and transportation…. these links are coordinated by a bureau of the state council

state structure macao

-it became a free port of portugal in 1845

-1951: it was decided that macao would be chinese territory under portuguese governance

-macao government became less dependent on portugal and in 1988 it was decided that they would return to the prc in 1999

-now it is a special administrative region of the PRC, foreign policy and defense in macao are managed by the prc

political parties macao

-they dont have political parties but civic associations, members of these can participate in the legislative power

legislative power macao

-the ‘legislative assembly of macao special administrative region’ => 33 members (largely dominated by pro beijing)

executive power

-chief executive serves as the head of government, he shares legislative power with trhe legislative council

political system hong kong

-1945-1981: governed by a governor appointed by the british crown

-1997: hong kong became a special administrative region of the PRC

-constitution hong kong: (joint declaration 1984) states that hong kong has autonomy, except for the domains of foreign affairs and national defense, it has its own juridical system, visa policy, it is an independent member of the world trade organization and the international monetary fund

political parties hong kong

-multi party political system: people pile, april fifth action, association for democract and peoples livelihood…

-

legislative power hong kong

-legislative council (legco): one chamber system, originally under supervision of the british crown,

-umbrella movement: because ccp did not want to hold elections for the legco

-from the protests emerged: hong kong independence party

-legco elections since 2021: three group constituencies —> geographical, functional, election committee constituencies => only 22 percent are directly elected

executive power hong kong

-nomination of the chief executive by election committee

-executive council: 16 non official members, 21 official, only 9 have an actual political party membership

administrative structure taiwan

-special municipalities: 6 taipei city, new taipei city, taoyuan city

-provincial cities: 3 chiayi, hsinchu, keelung

-counties: 10

-other county administrations: penghu county, kinmen county, lienchiang county

japanese rule taiwan

-1895-1945: japanse kolonie

=> taiwanese were marginalised: banned from owning businesses, using their language, receiving full education

GMD takeover and martial law

-after japans defeat, Taiwan was given to GMD

-indigenous taiwanese were distrusted, seen as japanese collaborators or dissenter (non conformist)

-after defeat by ccp, GMD re established itself on taiwan

GMD political dominance

-they created a deeply embedded party state system: controlled military, education, labor unions, local governance,

-local elections allowed limited participation from non GMD

-taipei became a special administrative zone

international context taiwan

-us became taiwans military and economic backer during the cold war => many elite figures got education in the US

-constitution of 1947: suspended under emergency mobilization laws

-martial law (1949-1987) gave almost absolute powers to the president

=> national security council and taiwan garrison commando exercised broad control (censorship, surveillance, restricted movement, repression)

leadership transitions and global isolation

-after chiang kai sheks death: vice president Yen Chia Kan became president but real authority went to Chiang Ching kuo (son of chian kai shek)

-1979: US recognized PRC

-taiwan lost UN seat and many diplomatic ties

-only 13 nation formally recognize taiwan

move toward domocratization

-pressure for reform led to taiwanization: focus shifs toward serving local population, indifenous and native born taiwanese began rising in political ranks, GMD focus turns inward instead of reunification with China

rise of political opposition

-scandals and dissatisfaction in the 80s led to growing opposition

-martial law ended in 1987: political party formation became legal

-democratic progressive party: emerged from dangwai

-1991 president lee teng hui declared end of the Communist Rebellion period and reinstated full constitution (end of special emergency powers for the president)

institutional reforms and role of the national council

-initially: taiwan relied on the national council and five branches

-until 1991 the original national council remained largely unchained due to martial law prohibiting new elections

-1991: sevond national council got elected

-1994: president and vice president must be directly elected for four year terms

-president shares executive authority with prime minister under a semi presidential system

=> end of national council: in 1994 it transferred authority to legislative yuan, it was abolished in 2005, legislative yuan became taiwans primary parliament

modern political system Taiwan

-it has a multi party democracy with three major parties:

Democratic progressive party

GMD

taiwans peoples party

five branches of government

1) legislative yuan: acts as parliament, handles lawmaking and budget control, has authority over constitutional amendments, president can dissolve this

2) executive yuan: government branch, led by prime minister, president appoints the prime minister, legislative yuan can withdraw trust in prime minister

3) judicial yuan: judicial authority with 16 judges, chief judges appointed by the president with legislative yuans approval, judges serve 9 year terms

4) control yuan: functions as an audit, oversight body, investigates public service efficiency and corruption, handles complaints, impeachment and censure

5) examination yuan: manages civil service exams and personnel affairs, ministry of examinations, ministry of personnel

national security council

-now under executive yuan

-reports to the legislative yuan and has limited powers compared to martial law era

new southbound policy

-initiated by tsai ing wen

-goal: diversify taiwans economic and cultural ties away from china, strengthen relations with southeast asia and australasia, reduce dependency on PRC

=> gained momentum because: PRC-taiwan tensions increased, pro democracy protestors from HK fled to Taiwan following the extradition bill