PHIL 150 Final Exam JMU Antolic-Piper

Philosophy

Philosophy is the rational investigation of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.

Ethics

Ethics is the branch of philosophy concerned with moral principles that govern behavior.

Science

Science is a method of understanding the natural world through observation, experimentation, and testable hypotheses.

Myth

A traditional story that explains beliefs or phenomena using supernatural elements.

Religion

A belief system involving faith, rituals, moral codes, and often deities.

Difference between philosophy and religion/myth

It relies on reason and critical thinking rather than faith or tradition.

Origin of philosophy

Ancient Greece; it means 'love of wisdom' (philo = love, sophia = wisdom).

Conceptual vs causal story

Philosophy explains concepts (why); science explains causes (how).

Features of the scientific method

Observation, hypothesis, experiment, repetition, objectivity.

Features of the philosophical method

Critical reasoning, conceptual analysis, logic, thought experiments.

Descriptive vs normative

Descriptive says what is; normative says what ought to be.

Example of descriptive vs normative statements

Descriptive: 'People speed.' Normative: 'You shouldn't speed.'

Descriptive vs normative disciplines

Descriptive: sociology, psychology; Normative: ethics, law, philosophy.

Descriptive ethics

Studies actual moral beliefs and behaviors across cultures.

Philosophical ethics

Studies what people should do using reasoned arguments.

Three branches of philosophical ethics

Normative ethics, applied ethics, meta-ethics.

Normative ethics

Studies moral standards to determine right and wrong.

Normative ethical theories

Consequentialism, deontology, virtue ethics.

Trolley problem (utilitarian vs deontologist)

Utilitarian: pull lever to save more lives; Deontologist: don't kill even to save more.

Applied ethics

Application of ethics to real-life issues like abortion or climate change.

Meta-ethics

Study of the nature, origin, and meaning of ethical concepts.

Statement

A sentence that can be true or false.

Difference between statements and questions/commands

Only statements can be true or false.

Descriptive statement

A factual claim (e.g. 'The sky is blue').

Normative statement

A moral or value claim (e.g. 'You should help others').

When is a descriptive statement true?

When it matches observable reality.

When is a normative statement true?

If it's logically or ethically justified.

Principle of universalizability

If an action is right for one, it's right for all in similar situations.

Principle of impartiality

Everyone's interests should be treated equally.

General Happiness Principle

Right actions maximize overall happiness (utilitarianism).

Dominance of moral norms

Moral rules override social norms when in conflict.

Principle of rationality

Moral decisions should be based on reason, not impulse.

Claim

A statement that asserts something to be true.

Claim

An assertion that something is the case.

Argument

A set of claims with premises supporting a conclusion.

Premise

A statement that provides support in an argument.

Conclusion

The statement that the argument tries to prove.

Inferential claim

The logical link between premises and conclusion.

Content claim

The topic or subject matter of the argument.

Deductive argument

One where the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises.

Valid deductive argument

When its form is logically correct.

Sound deductive argument

When it's valid and all premises are true.

Inductive argument

One where the conclusion is likely, but not guaranteed.

Strong inductive argument

When the premises make the conclusion likely.

Cogent inductive argument

When it is strong and the premises are true.

Modus ponens

If P then Q; P → Q.

Modus tollens

If P then Q; not Q → not P.

Hypothetical syllogism

If P then Q; If Q then R → If P then R.

Disjunctive syllogism

P or Q; not P → Q.

Constructive dilemma

If P then Q, If R then S; P or R → Q or S.

Reductio ad absurdum

Show that assuming the opposite leads to contradiction.

Inductive fallacy

A reasoning error where evidence doesn't support conclusion.

Argument from analogy

Infers similarity based on some shared traits; weak if traits are irrelevant.

Generalization

Drawing a conclusion from a sample.

Hasty or biased generalization

Conclusion based on too small or unrepresentative sample.

Causal argument

Claims one thing causes another; can be faulty if confounding factors ignored.

Slippery slope

Claiming one step will lead to a drastic series of events without evidence.

Post hoc fallacy

Assumes A caused B just because B happened after A.

Cognitive biases

Systematic thinking errors that affect decision-making.

Dunning-Kruger effect

Low-ability people overestimate their skills.

Availability bias

Judging likelihood based on what's easily recalled.

Confirmation bias

Favoring info that confirms existing beliefs.

Motivated reasoning

Letting desires or emotions shape how you interpret facts.

Consequentialism

Morality is based on outcomes.

Deontology

Morality is based on rules or duties.

Categorical imperative

Act only on maxims you can will to be universal laws.

Hypothetical imperative

"If you want X, do Y" - goal-based command.

Civility

Respectful public behavior and dialogue.

Tolerance

Allowing different views even if you disagree.

Hate speech

Offensive speech targeting identity groups.

Cosmopolitanism

All humans are members of a single global moral community.

Anti-cosmopolitanism

Priority to national or cultural groups over global unity.

Distributive justice

Fair allocation of resources in society.

Mitigation (climate ethics)

Reducing causes of climate change.

Adaptation (climate ethics)

Adjusting to climate change's effects.