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Social Fact
products of human interaction with persuasive or coercive power that exists externally to any person.
Raising Hand in Class
Coined by Durkheim
Sociological Sympathy
the skill of understanding others as they know themselves
Harriet Martineau
Culture
differences in groups’ shared ideas, objects, practices, and bodies that reflect those ideas
Ethnocentrism
assuming one’s own culture is superior to others
Embodied Culture
how one holds themselves through their culture (tattoos, long hair)
Social Construction
1.) the process by which we layer objects with ideas
2.) fold concepts into each other
3.) build connections between them
Research Ethics
the set of moral principles that guide empirical inquiry
Types of Research
-Microsociology: intricate studies of everyday interaction
-Macrosociology: elaborate studies of large-scale social trends
Herbert Blumer
coined symbolic interactionalism: the theory that social interaction depends on the social construction of reality
George Herbert Mead
-”I” and “ME”
I: subject of thought
judgment/judgment calls
Sets our goals & evaluates progress
It makes sure we are making good impressions
Me: the object of thought
The self we see in the mirror
Personal person
Social Identities
the socially constructed categories and subcategories of people in which we place ourselves or are placed by others
race
gender
sexual orientation
Durkheim’s view of sociology as a science
In staking a claim on sociology as a science, Durkheim made society into an object of empirical inquiry, meaning that it involves looking to the world for evidence with which scientists can test their hunches. Scientists call this evidence data, or systematically collected sets of empirical observations.
Protestant Work Ethic
the idea that one’s character can and should be measured by one’s dedication to paid work
Breaching
Purposefully breaking/testing the social norm to see how others respond
Stratification Systems (eg. Open/closed)
-Open: allows people to move from one social class to another (social mobility)
-social rank is determined through achieved status
Closed: accommodate little change in social position
Ethnomethodology
research aimed at revealing the underlying shared logic that is the foundation of all soical interactions
The New Deal
politicians in many countries passed laws to protect the proletariat and rein in the bourgeoisie
progressive
Types of Deviance
-Criminal deviance: behaviors/beliefs considered
-Social deviance: behaviors/beliefs violating social norms attracting negative sanctions
Harold Garfinkle
ethnomethodology
tic tac toe experiment - social norm and conformity
breaching
we all play social rules, we don’t recognize until we show them they are false
Conflict theorist
Karl Marx, Ida. B Wells, W.E.B Du Bois
Neutralization Techniques
1.) Denial; of responsibility
2.) Denial of injury
3.) Denial of victim
4.) Condemnation of Consumers
5.) Appeal to higher loyalties
Social Rules
A culturally specific set of laws, regulations, and norms that guide our behavior
Legitimation
a process by which a potentially controversial social fact is made acceptable
Role of agriculture in creating stratification
the surplus food production generated by villages in the vicinity allowed some residents not to participate in food production
relates to stratification because we people at the top and the bottom
Measures of central tendency
Mean: sum of all the numbers divided by the number of numbers
Median: middle number in a number set (used to determine income)
Mode: most often
Free Market Capitalism
a capitalistic system with little to no government intervention
Stratification Systems
Caste system: ones found in parts of South Asia, people stayed in whatever stratified layer of society they were born into → passing it onto their children
Class systems: ones that sort people into different positions in an economic hierarchy but also let them rise and fall
Feudal systems: typical of Europe in the Middle Ages, rich and powerful people born into nobility regained over a peasant class; the peasants worked with the nobleman’s land and received protection from neighboring armies
Enslavement system: an economic elite was allowed to legally own a class of humans and exploit them for their labor
Americans’ beliefs about poverty
don’t believe as much as there really is
feminization of poverty, women and children
gender pay gap
New Deal
post great depression to stabilize
social security, Medicare, stabilize economy
creatin of security net programs, cared for people in the system
racialized still
This made the economy somewhat less beneficial for the bourgeoisie and more beneficial for the proletariat.
Capitalism
an economic system based on private ownership of resources used to create wealth and the rights of individuals to profit personally
Free market capitalism
a capitalist system with little or no government is needed
Welfare capitalism
a capitalist economic system with some socialist policy aimed at distributing the profits aimed at distributing the profits of capitalism more evenly across the population.
Income
steady sources of money
wages, salary, regular interest payments, social assistance, pensions, alimony
intergenerational
Wealth
assets include investments like stocks, bonds, or whatever someone can spend.
intergenerational advantage/disadvantage
the kind passed from parents to children
Social stratification
persistent sorting of social groups into enduring hierarchies
hypersegregation
residential segregation is so extreme that many people’s daily lives involve little or no contact with people or other races
Health relations to zip codes
living conditions common in zip codes with higher percentages of Black people increased the likelihood that they would contract the virus
five most important numbers for health outcomes
neighborhood environmental racism
high income thresholds, more likely to have healthcare
Resource deserts
places that lack beneficial or critical amenities
Impact of the invention of agriculture
Starting around 12,000 years ago
Agriculture triggered such a change in society and how people lived that its development has been dubbed the “Neolithic Revolution.”
Humans have followed traditional hunter-gatherer lifestyles since their evolution, but they were swept aside in favor of permanent settlements and a reliable food supply.
Types of institutionalized economic inequality systems
Caste systems - ones found in parts of South Asia, people stayed in whatever stratified layer of society they were born into for a lifetime, passing their status to their children.
Feudal systems - typical of Europe in the Middle ages, rich and powerful individuals born into nobility reigned over a peasants class; the peasants worked the nobleman’s land and received protection from neighboring armies
Enslavement - an economic elite was allowed to legally own a class of humans and exploit them for their labor
Residential segregation
the sorting of different types of people into separate neighborhoods
White fight
organized white resistance to integration
pacts to not sell houses to someone who isn’t white
White flight
a phenomenon in which white people start leaving a neighborhood when a minority of residents begin to move in
Capuchin monkey experiment
social inequity aversion - emotional discomfort resulting from witnessing or experiencing an unfair outcome
cucumber and grapes
general aversion, why we don’t rattle the bars like the monkeys did
Michael Young
coined meritocracy in 1958
Book: In the dystopian era, with the abundance and variety of human talent, a person’s worth is wholly determined by their performance on a standardized IQ test
In true “modern” fashion, the meritocracy ranked everyone on a scale of better to worse
looking at the individual rather than structural
Meritocracy
ranking everyone on a simple scale of “better” to “worse” and it did so with brutal efficiency and mathematical confidence.
assumes that individuals have achieved a level of success equal to their personal effort
Educational inequality
unequal distribution of academic resources, such as funding, teachers, books, and technology, to different communities.
how schools are primarily funded
state education property tax
government aid
local contributors
consequence of residential segregation
adultification
a form of bias in which adult characteristics are attributed to children
colorism
prejudice against and discrimination toward people with dark skin compared to those with light skin, regardless of race
criminalizing marijuana
The first U.S laws to criminalize the plant were passed in the 1920s in response to the anti-immigration segment (prompted by an increase in illegal Mexican immigrants fleeing a civil war)
Anti-immigrant propaganda suggested that the Mexicans were importing drugs and bringing crime
Marijuana - Spanish word to stigmatize and criminalize Mexican immigrants
Made it look dangerous – “evil weed” = murder, suicide, SV, communism, interracial couples, and “maniacal deeds.”
War on drugs
The effort in the United States since the 1970s to combat illegal drug use by greatly increasing:
Increasing penalties
Enforcement
Incarceration of drug offenders
high incarceration
purely ways to attack poor communities of color
Durkheim’s types of solidarity
Mechanical solidarity: the kind of social cohesion that comes from familiarity and similarity. Each person was known to all the others, and they were all quite alike
Organic solidarity: a social cohesion based upon the dependence individuals have on each other in more advanced societies
organic solidarity replaced mechanical solidarity, how we differed from others became an important part of our identity.
Cross-institutional advantage
a phenomenon in which people are optimistic or negative across multiple institutions
Gender in sports/male flight
Male flight: a phenomenon in which men start abandoning an activity when women start adopting it
women start to enter male fields we see men leave
value and pay less in those fields
give less soical status
ex) cheerleaders
talcott parsons
structural functionalist
argued men and women are opposite sexes, naturally different and with contrasting strengths/weaknesses
argued breadwinner/homemaker marriage was a perfect balance between masculine and feminine
Daniel Patrick Moynihan
argued that family form was not functional; it was failing
in order to salvage the family we need to have more heterosexual couples getting married
anyone having children should be getting married
housewives were bored and depressed (self medicated)
wrote a widely publicized report for the U.S. government in which he argued that poverty among Black Americans was caused by their failure to adhere to the breadwinner/homemaker model (while downplaying interpersonal and institutional discrimination).14 Specifically, he blamed the “reversed roles of husband and wife,” suggesting that Black women were insufficiently subordinate to their husbands and Black men insufficiently dominant over their wives.
Traditional marriage
the man is the breadwinner, and the woman is a homemaker
Companionate marriage
spouses having mutual interests in their careers and children
Gendered divisions of labor
women are more likely to do more of the second shift labor
jobs that pay less
funnel women int social work, education and car providing fields, pay less
the institutional rules, norms, and practices that govern the allocation of tasks between women/men/boys/girls also contribute the gender division of labor, which is seen as variable over time and space and constantly under negotiation.
Androcentrism
the production of unjust outcomes for people who perform femineity
Heteronormativity
the assumption that the “default” or “correct sexual orientation is straight (heterosexual)
sexism
the production of unjust outcomes for people perceived to be biologically female
gendered hierarchies
concept in feminist theory that readers to the unequal distribution of power, resources and opportunities between men and women
masculinity is placed above femininity
more nuanced within men
hegemonic masculinity (ideal masculinity)
Impact of COVID on the gendered division of labor and job market
Compared to men, women in a range of countries were more likely to be laid off, fired, or have their paid work reduced
This is because they were concentrated in service occupations directly impacted by COVID-related mandates and shifts in consumption patterns
Feminization of poverty
a concentration of women, trans women, and gay, bisexual, and gender-nonconforming men at the bottom of the income scale and a concentration of gender-conforming, heterosexual, cis gender men at the top
Global care chains
a series of nurturing relationships in which the international work of care is displaced onto increasingly disadvantaged paid or unpaid workers
ex) wealthy white woman has children, she hires a nanny who is form another country who then sends money to her family. She then pays someone less to take care of her kids
hegemonic masculinity
the form of masculinity that constitutes the most widely admired and rewarded kind of person in any given culture
dual-earner households
the most common kind, even among married mix-sex couples with kids
x2 as many dual earner partnerships union as there are breadwinner/homemaker marriages
increase in women in workplaces during WWII
# of women in the workforce – 1939-26% to 1943-36%
5 million women entering the workforce between 1940-1945
Worked in factories, schools, hospitals, offices, and National Service, building ships, tanks, and bombs for the war
capitalist economy needed workers, men were at war, middle-class white women
Frames
a succunct claim as to the nature of a social fact
an assertion that an event or issue is a case of a particular thing and not a case of something else
BLM
Counter Frame
frames meant to challenge existing social movements’ frame
ALM
Cultural Constraints
taboos, sanction, laws - sanctions are supportive of norms, while punishments are applied to those who do not conform and reward those who do
Cultural Opportunities
an accommodation for a cultural conviction unique to an individual’s culture
The social construction of social problems
the process of coming to see a personal struggle as an issue of public concern
drunk driving might seem as an individual problem. but is a social problem. There is a lack of public transportation and the alternatives, like Uber, are expensive
Economic constraints
external factors that limit a business’s freedom to do what it wants - factors are usually out of their control (inflation rates)
Economic Opportunities
situations where people have an equal chance to earn a living wage
power elite
a relatively small group of interconnected people who occupy top positions in critical social institutions
C. Wright Mills
social imagination
The Power Elite
argued the power elite actively conspire to maintain control of their societies
in practice, we see policies are made to be power consolidated
Frances Fox Piven
coined interdependent power
Social movements can transform society through interdependent power in a globalized and increasingly capitalist world
interdependent power
the power of noncooperation
when the outcomes of individuals are affected by their own and other’s actions
Positive interdependence
the actions to promote the achievement of joint goals
negative interdependence
the actions that obstruct the achievement of each other’s goals
Social Capital
the number of people we know and the resources they can offer us
power elite use their money, connections, and symbolic resources to attain powerful positions in their societies
cultural capital
symbolic resources that communicate one’s social status
style, personality, skills, knowledge
repertoire of contention
coined by Charles Tilly
shared activities widely recognized as expressions of dissatisfaction with social conditions
how we understand why or how people engage in movements
master frames
culturally resonant frames that can be used across many different social movements causes
frames that re picked up by many social movement groups at once
critical event
a sudden and dramatic occurrence that motivates nonactivist to become politically active
insurgent consciousness
a recognition of a shared grievance that can be addressed through collective action
creating collective in order to fight against that social problem we decide to be a problem
have to rile up and create insurgent consciousness
climate change
Long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns
Burning coal, gas, and oil
Produce the most C02 emissions
Europe (33%)
North America (29%)
Africa (3%)
South America (3%)
Oceania (1.2%)
climate activism
a person who actively campaign to have issues of climate change recognized and addressed (Greta Thunberg)
primarily young people
driven by the global north but felt by the global south
mass migrations/conflict
globalization
the social processes that are expanding and intensifying connections across nation-states
world system
a global market organized by a capitalistic economy
colonialism
a practice in which countries claim control over territories, the people in them, and their natural resources, then exploit them for economic gain
role of transnational corporations
involved with the international production of goods and series, foreign investments, or income and asses management in more than one country
situated in core economies
most of the high market high capital is located in core nations
Core countries
robust state machinery and developed national culture
United States
Canada
Western Europe (most of it)
Japan
Australia
New Zealand
extracts from semi and peripheral
Semi-peripheral countries
contribute to manufacturing and exportation of goods
Argentina
China
India
Brazil
Mexico
Indonesia
Iran
global imagined community
a socially constructed in-group based on a shared planet
first and foremost earthlings; our in-group is the human race
critical event
a sudden and dramatic occurrence that motivates nonactivist to become politically active
murder of George Floyd
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