Key Concepts of the Protestant Reformation and Nation-States

Indulgences

Payments made to the Catholic Church believed to reduce punishment for sins; a major source of revenue and a central issue in Martin Luther's 95 Theses.

95 Theses

A list of Martin Luther's grievances against the Catholic Church, challenging practices like indulgences and questioning the Church's authority.

Simony

The sale of church offices, where positions within the Church were sold to the highest bidder, often leading to corruption.

Diet of Worms

The 1521 council where Martin Luther was asked to recant his writings but famously refused, marking a critical moment in the Reformation.

Excommunication

The act of officially excluding someone from participation in the sacraments and services of the Christian Church.

Lutheranism

A branch of Protestant Christianity founded on Martin Luther's teachings, rejecting papal authority and emphasizing faith and scripture.

Calvinism

A Protestant denomination founded by John Calvin, emphasizing predestination and the sovereignty of God in salvation.

Huguenots

French Protestants influenced by Calvinism who faced significant persecution in Catholic-dominated France.

Anabaptists

Radical reformers during the Protestant Reformation who advocated for adult baptism and separation from state control.

Iconoclasm

The rejection or destruction of religious images, practiced by some Protestant groups to protest Catholic traditions.

Nation-State

A political entity characterized by defined borders, a permanent population, centralized government, and shared cultural identity.

Sovereignty

The authority of a state to govern itself without external interference; an essential concept in the development of nation-states.

Feudalism

A medieval social and economic system where local lords governed lands and owed allegiance to a monarch.

Renaissance

The cultural revival of art, literature, and learning in Europe from the 14th to the 17th century, emphasizing humanism and secularism.

Humanism

A Renaissance philosophy that focused on human potential and achievements, often challenging traditional authority, including that of the Church.

Secularism

The principle of separating the state from religious institutions, gaining momentum with the decline of church power.

Treaty of Westphalia

The 1648 treaty that ended the Thirty Years' War and established state sovereignty as a principle in European politics.

Absolutism

A form of government where the ruler holds absolute power, often justified by theories like the "divine right of kings."

Divine Right of Kings

The belief that monarchs derive their authority directly from God, often used to justify absolute monarchy.

Nationalism

A sense of pride and unity among people within a territory, emphasizing a shared national identity over allegiance to rulers or the Church.

Encomienda System

A labor system where Spanish colonists were granted the right to extract labor and tribute from indigenous populations.

Bartolomé de las Casas

A Spanish priest and missionary who documented the abuses of indigenous peoples by colonizers, advocating for indigenous rights.

Columbian Exchange

The extensive exchange of goods, crops, people, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds following Columbus's voyages.

Conquistadors

Spanish explorers and soldiers who conquered indigenous empires in the Americas, such as the Aztecs and Incas.

Syncretism

The blending of indigenous and Christian religious practices, which occurred as indigenous people adapted to colonial influence.

Mercantilism

An economic theory that emphasizes accumulating wealth through trade and colonial expansion, used by European powers to justify colonization.

Cash Crops

Crops like sugar and tobacco grown primarily for sale and profit, transforming economies in the Americas and Europe.

Smallpox

A deadly disease brought to the Americas by Europeans, which caused massive population decline among indigenous peoples.

Mestizo

A term used in colonial Spanish America to describe people of mixed European and indigenous ancestry.

Synod

A council of a church, often called to decide doctrinal issues; during the Reformation, synods played a role in organizing new Protestant communities.