Child Development Exam 1

3 goals of developmental science

Describe, explain, apply

Describe (developmental science)

Identify and document how people develop and how development changes over time.

Explain (developmental science)

Determine why development occurs and what factors contribute to developmental changes.

Apply (developmental science)

Use knowledge about development to improve people's lives, education, parenting, healthcare, and other real-world situations.

Ways to describe development

Age, sequence, rate, timing, and different domains of development.

Developmental domains

Physical/biological, cognitive, emotional, and social development.

Quantitative change

Change in amount, number, frequency, or degree. (gradual changes)

Qualitative change

Change in type, structure, organization, or way of functioning. (distinct, abrupt changes)

Stability

The tendency for characteristics or patterns to remain relatively consistent over time.

Plasticity

The capacity for development to change in response to experiences or environmental influences.

Factors contributing to developmental change

Genes, biology, brain development, environment, family relationships, culture, education, experiences, historical circumstances, and individual choices.

Nature

Natural or biological and genetic influences on development.

Nurture

Environmental and experiential influences on development.

Modern view of nature vs. nurture

Nature and nurture interact; development is not simply caused by one or the other.

Developmental cascade

A change in one area of development influences changes in other areas, creating a chain of effects over time.

Theory

An organized set of ideas or principles that helps explain and predict observations or behaviors.

Psychodynamic perspective

Focuses on unconscious processes, emotions, early experiences, and internal conflicts.

Behaviorism

Focuses on observable behavior and how it is shaped by environmental consequences.

Classical conditioning

Learning through associations.

Operant conditioning

Behavior changes because of consequences.

Social learning/social cognitive perspective

People can learn by observing and imitating others.

Cognitive perspective

Focuses on how thinking, reasoning, memory, and understanding develop.

Ecological perspective

Development occurs within multiple environmental systems, including family, school, community, culture, and society.

Evolutionary perspective

Examines how behaviors and developmental characteristics may have been shaped by adaptation and natural selection.

Value of multiple developmental perspectives

No single theory explains every aspect of development; multiple perspectives provide a more complete understanding.

Scientific method

Identify a question, develop a hypothesis, collect data, analyze evidence, draw conclusions, and replicate or further test findings.

Developmental science research questions

Questions about how sleep, reading, stress, nutrition, screen use, parenting, and other factors relate to development.

Random sampling

Participants are selected randomly from the population.

Convenience sampling

Participants are selected because they are easily available.

Stratified sampling

The population is divided into relevant groups and participants are selected from those groups.

Observation

Researchers watch and record behavior.

Interview

Researchers ask participants questions.

Questionnaire/survey

Participants respond to a standardized set of questions.

Standardized test

A measure designed to assess a specific ability or characteristic.

Physiological/biological measures

Measures of biological processes or characteristics.

Cross-sectional study

Compares different age groups at one point in time.

Longitudinal study

Studies the same individuals over a period of time.

Sequential study

Combines aspects of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.

Correlational study

Examines whether two or more variables are related.

Positive correlation

As one variable increases, the other tends to increase.

Negative correlation

As one variable increases, the other tends to decrease.

Zero correlation

No consistent relationship between variables.

Correlation does not equal causation

A correlation shows an association but does not prove that one variable caused another.

Experiment

A study designed to test cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating an independent variable and measuring a dependent variable.

Independent variable

The variable the researcher changes or manipulates.

Dependent variable

The variable the researcher measures.

Reliability

The consistency of a measurement.

Validity

Whether a measure actually measures what it is supposed to measure.

Research integrity

Using reliable and valid measures and conducting research responsibly so conclusions are trustworthy.

Research ethics

Informed consent, child assent when appropriate, protection from unnecessary harm, privacy/confidentiality, right to withdraw, honest reporting, minimizing risks, and appropriate protection of vulnerable participants.

Interaction of genetics, brain, and environment

Development results from continuous interactions among genetics, biological development, brain development, experiences, and the environment.

DNA

The molecule containing genetic information.

Gene

A segment of DNA that contributes to particular biological characteristics or processes.

Chromosome

A structure containing DNA and many genes.

Meiosis

Cell division that produces reproductive cells and reduces chromosome number by half.

Fertilization

When sperm and egg combine to produce a zygote.

Mitosis

Cell division that produces genetically similar body cells and allows growth and tissue repair.

Alleles

Different versions of a gene.

Genotype

An individual's genetic makeup or combination of alleles.

Phenotype

An observable characteristic produced through genetic and environmental influences.

Sex-linked trait

A trait associated with genes located on sex chromosomes.

Sex-linked disorder

A disorder caused by a variant in a gene located on a sex chromosome.

Examples of sex-linked disorders

Red-green color blindness and hemophilia.

Environmental influence on gene expression

Environmental experiences can influence whether and how strongly certain genes are activated.

Frontal lobe

Planning, decision-making, voluntary movement, problem solving, and impulse control.

Parietal lobe

Touch/body sensations, spatial processing, and integrating sensory information.

Temporal lobe

Hearing, language-related processing, and memory.

Occipital lobe

Visual processing.

Forebrain

Includes structures involved in higher-level thinking, emotion, sensory processing, and voluntary behavior.

Midbrain

Involved in movement, attention, and processing certain sensory information.

Hindbrain

Involved in basic survival functions such as breathing, heart rate, balance, and coordination.

Cerebral lateralization

Specialization of the brain's two hemispheres for particular functions.

Neuron

A specialized cell that communicates information.

Dendrites

Receive information from other cells.

Cell body/soma

Maintains the neuron.

Axon

Carries signals away from the cell body.

Myelin sheath

Helps neural signals travel efficiently.

Axon terminals

Communicate with other cells.

Glial cells

Support and protect neurons, provide nutrients, help maintain the neural environment, contribute to myelin, and assist with repair and immune functions.

EEG

Records electrical activity in the brain.

fMRI

Measures changes associated with brain activity and provides detailed brain images.

MRI

Provides structural images of the brain.

PET

Examines metabolic brain activity using a tracer.

Experience-expectant plasticity

The brain expects common experiences during development, and those experiences help establish typical neural connections.

Experience-dependent plasticity

The brain changes in response to an individual's unique experiences.

Critical period

A specific period when a particular experience is especially necessary for typical development; missing it may cause significant impairment.

Sensitive period

A period when the brain is especially receptive to certain experiences, although development may still occur later.

Zygote

The single cell produced when a sperm fertilizes an egg.

Dizygotic twins

Fraternal twins formed when two separate eggs are fertilized by two separate sperm.

Monozygotic twins

Identical twins that begin as one fertilized egg and develop when the early embryo divides into two.

Factors influencing conception

Timing of ovulation, age, sperm quantity and quality, egg quality, reproductive health, hormonal factors, health conditions, and lifestyle/environmental factors.

Fertility treatments

Fertility medications, artificial insemination/intrauterine insemination, IVF, procedures involving eggs or sperm, and donor eggs or sperm.

Germinal period

The prenatal stage beginning at fertilization that includes rapid cell division, movement toward the uterus, and implantation.

Embryonic period

The prenatal stage when major organs and body structures begin forming and cells become specialized.

Fetal period

The prenatal stage when major structures continue developing and maturing and rapid growth occurs.

Cell specialization

The process in which initially similar cells develop into different cell types with specific structures and functions.

Examples of specialized cells

Neurons, muscle cells, blood cells, and skin cells.

Cephalocaudal development

Development proceeds from the head downward.

Proximodistal development

Development proceeds from the center of the body outward.

Prenatal contextual influences

Maternal nutrition, illness, stress, exercise, substance exposure, medications, toxins, prenatal healthcare, maternal age, and social/economic circumstances.