APES Formulas and Figures

1,000,000,000

10^9; giga

1,000,000

10^6; mega

1,000

10^3; kilo

100

10^2; hecto

0\.01

10^-2; centi

0\.001

10^-3; milli

0\.000001

10^-6; micro

0\.000000001

10^-9; nano

Percent Change

(Final - Initial)/Initial x 100

Rate of Change

(Final Value - Initial Value)/(Final Time - Initial Time), or change in amount over time

Population Density

\# organisms/unit of land or area

Doubling Time (Rule of 70)

\# of years to double = 70 / Annual % growth rate

Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

Average # of babies/woman

Population Growth Rate

r = | (b + i) - (d + e)

Replacement Level Fertility (RLF)

2 children/woman

Population Growth Rate

r = |  (b + i) - (d + e)   / total population # |  x 100

Crude Growth Rate (Natural Annual Increase)

r = (CBR-CDR)/10

Total Energy Used in kWh

kWh = (watts x hours)/1000

Energy Efficiency

(efficiency of step 1 x efficiency of step 2, etc.) x 100

Primary Productivity

NPP = GPP - R

10% Rule

Multiply by 0.10 each level

Photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H2O + Light → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Cellular Respiration

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Measures dissolved oxygen use by microbes

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Gases dissolve better in water at cooler temperatures

Ocean Acidification

CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → (H+) + (HCO3)-

Photochemical Smog (brown)

NOx  +VOCs + Sunlight → O3 + PANs + Aldehydes

Sulfurous Smog (gray)

Coal smoke (SO2) + H2O → H2SO4 (sulfuric acid)

Acid Mine Drainage

Acidic water from mines carries heavy metals and contaminates water & soil

Acid Rain & Acid Formation

NOx (from cars) + H2O → HNO3 (nitric acid) 

SOx (from coal) + H2O → H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) 

CO2 (from fossil fuels) + H2O → H2CO3 (carbonic acid)

How to fix acidity problems such as acidic soil or acid mine drainage?

Add a base such as limestone (NOTE: this does NOT work for ocean acidification!)

Stratospheric vs. Tropospheric Ozone

Good up high, bad nearby! (O3)

Tropospheric Ozone Formation

UV Radiation + NOx + O2 → O3