Introduction to Sociology 3e - Vocabulary Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms from the lecture notes across chapters on sociology, research methods, culture, and society.

sociology

The systematic and scientific study of society and social interaction.

society

A group of people who live in a defined geographic area, interact, and share a common culture.

culture

The group’s shared practices, values, beliefs, and material and nonmaterial aspects.

micro-level

Focus on small-scale social interactions and individuals.

macro-level

Focus on large-scale social processes and structures, such as entire societies.

sociological imagination

C. Wright Mills’ idea of connecting personal experiences to wider social and historical contexts.

social facts

The laws, morals, values, and social practices that constrain and guide society.

reification

Treating an abstract concept as if it were a real, material thing.

positivism

The view that the social world can be studied with the same scientific methods as the natural world.

verstehen

Weber’s concept of understanding social behavior from the perspective of the subjects.

structural functionalism

Macro-level theory viewing society as a system of interrelated parts that work together.

conflict theory

Macro-level theory highlighting inequality and power struggles between groups.

symbolic interactionism

Micro-level theory focusing on everyday interactions and meanings.

grand theories

Broad theories explaining large-scale social processes (e.g., functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism).

manifest functions

The intended, recognized consequences of a social process.

latent functions

The unintended or hidden consequences of a social process.

dysfunctions

Social processes that have undesirable consequences for society.

hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

independent variable

The variable that causes change in another variable.

dependent variable

The variable that is affected by changes in the independent variable.

reliability

Consistency of a measure or study; results are replicable.

validity

The extent to which a measure or test actually measures what it is intended to.

operational definition

Clear, measurable definition of a concept used in research.

random sample

A sample where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

survey

A data collection method using questions administered to respondents.

field research

Collecting data in natural settings through observation or participation.

ethnography

In-depth study of a culture or social group through immersive observation.

participant observation

Research method where the researcher participates in the group’s activities to observe.

case study

In-depth analysis of a single person, event, or group.

secondary data analysis

Using data collected by others or existing sources for new interpretations.

Hawthorne effect

People change their behavior because they know they are being observed.

ethics

Moral principles guiding research; protecting participants.

value neutrality

Objectivity in research, avoiding personal biases in analysis and reporting.

ASA code of ethics

American Sociological Association guidelines for ethical research.

Tuskegee syphilis experiment

Unethical study where treatment was withheld from Black men to study disease progression.

Henrietta Lacks

Ethical issue involving use of patient cells (HeLa) without consent.

Milgram experiment

Obedience study raising ethical concerns due to distress and deception.

Stanford Prison Experiment

Ethical concerns about treatment of participants in a simulated prison study.

culture (material vs nonmaterial)

Material culture: physical objects; Nonmaterial culture: ideas, beliefs, norms.

culture shock

Disorientation experienced when encountering an unfamiliar culture.

ethnocentrism

Judging another culture by the standards of one’s own culture.

xenocentrism

Belief that another culture is superior to one’s own.

cultural relativism

Evaluating a culture based on its own norms and values.

cultural universals

Traits shared by all human cultures (e.g., family, language, humor).

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

Language shapes thought and perception (linguistic relativity).

nonverbal communication

Communication without words (gestures, body language, expressions).

symbol

An object or gesture that carries a particular meaning recognized by a culture.

language

System of symbols used for communication.

gesture

A body movement used to convey meaning.

culture diffusion

Spread of cultural elements from one society to another.

globalization

Increasing interconnectedness of cultures and economies worldwide.

invention vs discovery

Invention: creating something new; discovery: finding something that exists.

culture lag

Time gap between the introduction of material culture and the acceptance of nonmaterial culture.

high culture

Elite cultural patterns associated with educated/wealthy groups.

low culture

Cultural patterns associated with the general population; mainstream/mainstream culture.

popular culture

Culture widely embraced by the masses and spread through mass media.

subculture

A smaller cultural group within a larger culture with its own distinct practices.

counterculture

A group that rejects and opposes the dominant culture’s norms and values.

cultural change

Transformation of a culture over time due to invention, diffusion, or diffusion.

innovation

New ideas or objects introduced to a culture.

diffusion

Spread of cultural elements between societies.

preindustrial

Societies before the Industrial Revolution (hunter-gatherer, pastoral, horticultural, agricultural).

industrial

Societies characterized by mechanized production and urbanization.

postindustrial (information) society

Society focused on information and services rather than physical goods.

hunter-gatherer

Preindustrial society relying on hunting and gathering.

pastoral

Society based on domesticated animals; often nomadic.

horticultural

Society based on small-scale farming with simple tools and settlements.

agricultural

Society with large-scale farming and surplus production; rise of cities.

feudal

Medieval hierarchical system based on land ownership and service.

mechanical solidarity

Social cohesion based on similarity and interdependence in preindustrial societies.

organic solidarity

Social cohesion based on interdependence in more complex societies.

anomie

Normlessness; a breakdown of social norms in a rapidly changing society.

base and superstructure

Marxian idea: economic base shapes culture and institutions (superstructure).

alienation

Sense of separation from product, process, others, or self in capitalist systems.

false consciousness

Beliefs that misrepresent the true nature of social relations, benefiting the dominant class.

class consciousness

Awareness of one's social class and its interests.

Protestant work ethic

Weber’s idea that hard work and frugality are tied to Protestant belief.

iron cage

Weber’s concept of rationalization trapping individuals in systems.

habitualization

Repeated actions become patterns that can be performed automatically.

institutionalization

Norms becoming established as social institutions.

Thomas theorem

“If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.”

self-fulfilling prophecy

A belief that leads to its own fulfillment through actions.

role

A pattern of behavior expected of someone occupying a social status.

status

A social position that holders occupy within a group.

role strain

Tension among the multiple demands of a single role.

role conflict

Conflicts between different roles a person holds.

impression management

Presenting oneself to others in a favorable light; part of dramaturgy.

dramaturgy

Goffman’s idea that life is a stage and people perform roles.

looking-glass self

Cooley’s idea that self-image comes from how others perceive us.

generalized other

Mead’s concept of the common attitudes of society.

significant others

People who are especially important in shaping one’s sense of self.

Goffman

Erving Goffman; developer of dramaturgy and impression management.

Cooley

Charles Horton Cooley; proposed the looking-glass self.

Mead

George Herbert Mead; foundational symbolic interactionist.

Berger & Luckmann

Authors of The Social Construction of Reality; introduced habit/institutionalization concepts.

habitualization (concept)

Process by which actions become patterns through repetition.

social construction of reality

Idea that reality is created through social interaction and shared meanings.