Utilitarianism

Greatest Happiness Principle (GHP)

A principle in utilitarianism asserting that the morally right action is the one that maximizes happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of people while minimizing pain or suffering.

Forms of Utilitarianism

Act Utilitarianism: Evaluates each action individually, choosing those that maximize overall happiness.

Rule Utilitarianism: Adheres to general rules or principles that, when followed, maximize happiness for society.

Direct Utilitarianism: Directly aims at promoting happiness as the immediate goal of conduct.

Indirect Utilitarianism: Promotes happiness as a byproduct of pursuing other goals or adhering to other values.

Is-Ought Fallacy

A logical error of deriving a prescriptive "ought" statement from descriptive "is" facts. For example, just because a practice exists doesn't mean it should be maintained.

Mill’s Proof of the GHP

In Utilitarianism Chapter 4, Mill attempts to prove that happiness is the only intrinsic good by arguing that people desire happiness as an end in itself. Since happiness is universally desired, it is the sole standard of morality. This "proof" is debated for its reliance on empirical observation.

Internal Sanctions

Internal feelings like guilt or conscience that discourage morally wrong behavior. For example, an individual avoids lying because it conflicts with their sense of integrity.

Common Criticisms of Utilitarianism

• Is too demanding because it requires impartial concern for the greater good.

• Focuses solely on consequences, ignoring intentions and moral character.

• Fails to provide sufficient guidance for complex decisions.
  Mill responds by emphasizing the role of secondary principles (e.g., "Do not lie") as practical guides and clarifying that morality should focus on actions' outcomes rather than individual motives.

Qualitative Hedonism (Mill)

Some pleasures, such as intellectual or moral satisfaction, are inherently more valuable than others (e.g., physical pleasures). For instance, Mill states, "It is better to be a human dissatisfied than a pig satisfied."

Competent Judges

individuals who have experienced both higher (intellectual, moral) and lower (sensory, physical) pleasures. According to Mill, they are the best judges of which pleasures are more desirable because they can make informed comparisons based on personal experience.

Associationism

A psychological theory suggesting that moral feelings and behaviors develop through repeated associations. For example, a person raised in a supportive environment may naturally associate their happiness with the well-being of others, strengthening moral inclinations.

Primary Threats to Individual Liberty

1. Tyranny of the Majority: The majority enforces its preferences and suppresses minority viewpoints.

2. Social Conformity: Societal norms and pressures discourage individuality and free thought, stifling progress.

Harm Principle

Mill’s principle that the only legitimate reason to restrict an individual’s freedom is to prevent harm to others. Actions that affect only the individual are not subject to interference, even if deemed immoral or unwise by society.

Self-Regarding action

Impact only the individual (e.g., personal lifestyle choices like dieting or smoking).

Four Arguments for Free Expression

1. Suppressed opinions may be true.

2. Even false opinions often contain partial truths.

3. Debate strengthens understanding of the truth.

4. Suppression fosters dogmatic beliefs rather than reasoned convictions.

Limits on Free Expression

Free expression is limited when it directly harms others or incites violence. For example, speech that promotes hate crimes may be restricted to protect societal well-being.

Experiments of Living

Diverse lifestyles and choices allow individuals to explore different paths, fostering personal and societal development. For Mill, this freedom promotes progress and innovation.

Offense to Others

Causing mere offense, such as through differing opinions or behaviors, is not sufficient to justify restricting liberty. Restrictions are valid only when tangible harm is involved.

Natural Penalties

Consequences that naturally arise from certain behaviors, like social ostracism or health problems. For example, someone who lies frequently may lose the trust of friends without any formal punishment.

Applications of the Harm Principle

Used to assess policies or societal norms, emphasizing harm prevention. For example, drug legalization debates often hinge on whether the harm caused by drugs justifies restrictions or whether regulation can minimize harm effectively.

What is the only intrinsic good in Utilitarianism?

Happiness is the only intrinsic good because it is desirable as an end in itself. Other goods, like wealth or education, are valuable only as means to achieve happiness or avoid suffering.