MOTIVATION - (DRIVE THEORY) CHP 5 REVIEW

Overall concept of drive

motivation depends on a psychological need 

• Need state existing = organism motivated to reduce it 

  • Becomes aware of specific stimuli  that reduce the need 

  • reduction responses learned and repeated 

E.g stimuli of hunger pangs to reduce hunger need state 

• No immediate resolve = increase in activity to find what satisfies need

E.g racoon walking until finding trashcan 

Freud’s view of motivation

Freud in 1915 → drive as the forces within the individual that activate behaviour

Motivation using psychic energy

• Builds up in the Id when a need state exists 

  • Stimulation/excitation of the nervous system 

  • System of storage and flow of energy 

• Increase in energy as aversive

Principle of constancy (Freud)

 argued that nervous system eliminates/reduces stimuli that affect it 

• Reduction of stimuli → pleasurable

• INcreases in stimuli → unpleasurable 

To satisfy a need, channel psychic energy to generate behaviours to reduce state need. 

Moving Force - Pressure

 (impetus) → strength  of the force

• More pressure = more motivated 
  

E.g not drinking for hours; pressure to drink will be greater 

Moving Force - Aim

satisfaction obtained by removing/reducing stimulation 

E.g knowing that thirstiness is reduced by water 

Moving Force - Object

either internal/external to individual,  how the force is satisfied 

• Can change throughout life – learn different ways to satisfy 

• Can become fixated – attachment of object to instinct 

E.g water; can change to other fluids, coffee, tea… 

Can become fixated on the object of coffee leading to heavy consumption of coffee  

Moving Force - Source

bodily processes that activate moving force 

E.g feeling thirsty

Order of moving force traits in motivated behaviour

2 types of moving force (Freud)

Life force: reproductive or sexual force; life maintenance/preservation force 

• powered by eros psychic energy 

• Reproductive force → powered by libido psychic energy 

  • Exist within EZ in body before puberty 

  • Improper development → displacement of sexual energy onto inappropriate objects 

Death force: force to retain the optimal level for stimulation = lowest level aka death 

• Powered by thanatos psychic energy 

• Aggression → displacing death force outwardly

Modifications to Moving Force

Reversal: the moving forces aim is changed 

E.g masochism → reversing aim from active to passive satisfaction 

Turning round: the moving forces object is changed 

E.g masochism → turns object of assault from others onto the self 

Reversal and turning round are often paired together 

Sublimation 

Repression: the moving forces are resisted to the point it becomes unknown  

• If moving force activity  causes us pain rather than pleasure 

• Motivation is unconscious - cant assume that a behaviour represents the motive 

Criticisms of Moving Force

• Empirically weak 

• Unclear relation of terms to observable events 

• Cannot predict behaviour 

Rise of drive concept 

Drive concept believed to have a biological basis compared to instinct concept 

• Assumed that brain structures monitored state of body 
  

Warden used 

Columbia obstruction box → measured strengths of different motives (hunger, thirst, sex, exploration) 

Woodworths drive theory

First coined the word drive

Believed that all behaviour (other than reflexes) are motivated 

• No drive = no power to activate behaviour 

Woodworth drive theory - 3 characteristics

1. Intensity: drive can activate behaviour that can vary from low levels (dreaming) to high levels (anger/fear) 

2. Directionality: leading to either approach or avoidance behaviour 

3. Persistence: continuing behaviour until conditions supporting drive state are eliminated 

Hulls drive theory

Motivation develops to meet needs because it gives advantages to survival 

• Organic needs = drive that brings body back to homeostasis 

Influenced by 

Thorndike Law of Effect → learning involves connection of stimuli and responses 

• Reinforcement strengthens the connection

Drive Reduction Model (Hull)

reinforcement (learning) REDUCES drives 

Habits: term for learning, strengthens as a result of how often pairing of stimulus and response is followed by reinforcement 

• Reinforcement → happens when drive is reduced 

E.g object like food is reinforcing because it reduces drive 

Learning happens because of motivational conditions

Drive Reduction Model Formula (Hull)

[ _sE_r = _sH_r x D ] 

Strength of behaviour (_sE_r ) depends upon aka is equal to 

• Strength of the learned response (_sH_r) 

• Strength of the Drive (D) 

If learning or drive is at zero, no behaviour will occur.

Hull - generalized drive

only one drive state exists, different motivation conditions contribute towards it

E.g being both hungry and thirsty; higher drive level than a person is who is just thirsty 

Hull - Drive Stimuli

provide directionality to behaviour; and respond w either approach or avoidance 

• Need states →  trigger drive + activate receptor mechanisms to create drive stimuli (S_d) 

  • E.g stomach gurgling, empty feeling 

How does drive relate to development

1. Allows for learning → reinforcement depends on reduction of drives

2. Activates behaviour → no drive = no behaviour 

3. Allows for directionality of behaviour → drive stimuli evokes approach/avoidance 

Incentive motivation

Perin and Williams studies → sole basis for Hulls theorizing

 characteristics of the goal objects has an influence on motivation 

• Aka desirability of goals that directs behaviour 

• Learned through classical conditioning 

• incentive value of a goal alters behaviour the same way as a drive 

E.g eating something you dont like that is more available to you or walking a distance to eat your favourite food 

• Two options have different incentive values; will activate behaviour in different amount

Drive reduction formula + incentive motivation

[ _sE_r = _sH_r x D x K ]

Additional constructs to Hulls drive theory

1. Stimulus intensity dynamism (V) 

2. Inhibition (reactive or conditioned)

Additional criticisms/edits to drive theory 

Reduction of needs doesnt always lead to reinforcement 

• Sheffield showed that male rats learn a response that lead to consummatory response even though no needs were reduced 

Learning leads to increase of motivation 

• Reinforcement can lead to learning WITHOUT REDUCTION of drives 

• Drive induction (learning): excitement from cues associated with consummatory response 

Drive as  a general activator

Sexual Motivation as a Drive

Classical conditioning equation

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) [meat powder] → Unconditioned response (UCR) [salivation]  

Neutral stimulus [bell] + UCS 

Conditioned stimulus (CS) [bell] → Conditioned Response (CR) [salivation]

How do phobias develop

Organism is passive in the learning process

• Learning will occur involuntary of our will 

• Can develop phobias involuntarily

Experimental neurosis

neurotic and aversive behaviour caused by increasingly difficult discrimination between stimuli

Counterconditioning

negative conditioned stimulus is paired with a strongly positive unconditioned stimulus

• Can eliminate maladaptive reactions 

• Preferred over extinction → produces a positive response to replace negative UCS 

Anxiety hierarchy

list of items arranged from least to most anxiety provoking

Systematic desensitzation

therapeutic technique that teaches patient to relax on command and is read an anxiety hierarchy

• uses counter-conditioning

Interoceptive conditioning

classical conditioning; CS, UCS, or both are applied directly to internal organs  or mucosa 

Intero-exteroceptive conditioning

 conditioned stimulus is applied internally + unconditioned stimulus is applied externally 

Balloon w cool water inserted into uterus of dog 

UCS = food → UCR = salivation 

CS = cool water → CS = salivation 

Intero-interoceptive conditioning

conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are applied internally 

Loops formed in intestines of dogs 

CS = distensions of loops + UCS = delivering CO₂ to lungs (defensive breathing)

CS → CR = defensive breathing 

Extero-interoceptive conditioning

external conditioned stimulus is paired with an internal unconditioned stimulus 

Patients w peeing issues had balloons inserted into bladders 

External CS = Dials connected to balloons (external) + Internal UCS = bladder distension (needing to pee) 

External CS = Dials being turned high → Internal UCS = bladder distension (needing to pee)

Learned aversions

learning to avoid a stimulus due to an unpleasant response 

• related to predisposed preparedness

Rat experiment

• adaptive to associate taste and illness faster than taste + pain
  

Instrumental conditioning

reinforcement of appropriate responses, lead to the acquisition/strengthening of behaviours 

Amount of reinforcement effect

performance variable; greater amount of reinforcement leads to better/more intense/ vigorous  performance

• Does NOT lead to greater persistence of behaviour

quality of reinfrocement effect

greater quality of reinforcement leads to  better/more intense/ vigorous  performance

negative contrast

switching from a large amount of reinforcement to a medium amount of reinforcement, performance is significantly WORSE 

Positive contrast

witch from a small amount of reinforcement to a medium amount of reinforcement; performance is significantly BETTER 

what impacts performance

History of reinforcement as a influencer of performance

Latent learning

learning WITHOUT reinforcement 

• Argues that reinforcement impacts performance/motivaton rather than learning 

E.g rats that were not fed had still learned the maze but had not motivation to show their learning

Primary reinforcer

 increase responses due to innate responses 

• E.g food, water, avoidance of pain

Secondary conditioned reinforcers

 increase responses due to association w primary reinforcers 

Generalized conditioned reinforcer

 increases responses from several primary reinforcements; becomes independent and can support behaviour 

e.g money; paired w primary reinforcers overtime

Token

incentive that reinforcers will follow

e.g money

Factors of avoidance behaviour

1. Classically conditioned fear response 

2. Operant response reinforced by reduction of fear

Miller experiment → white compartment became associated w electric shock which motivated rats to learn how to open door to get to the safe black compartment 

Helplessness effect

inability to learn to control one environment as a result of previous experience of no control

• Learning that there is no control over trauma

Design to investigate helplessness

1. One group  can control the environment by making a response 

Were able to learn how to jump the hurdle to avoid shock

2. One group cannot make a response that controls the environment 

E.g receive shock w no environmental control 

• Helplessness as a result of inescapability of aversive effect  

3. Control group (no treatment) 

Passivity symptoms

Motivational deficit

•  learned laziness: uncontrolled reinforcement + no impact on consequences makes learning slower 

•  less aggressive/competitive

• learned helplessness decreases overtime

Environment + prevention of helplessness

Motivation depends on the experience with controlling one's environment 

• helped by therapy that displays how behaviour can effective in changing their environment

Criticisms of depression model

Depressed as LOW IN MOTIVATION and NOT that their actions are ineffective

feel guilt and self blame —> sense of control

Functions of reinforcement

 informational (tells us effects of behaviour on the environment) and motivational 

Modelling processes

Attention → observation and imitation of models of ppl we’re around 

E.g family, television 

Retention → incorporation of observation into memory; stored in both a verbal and imaginal code 

Reproduction →  imitation if correctly string together correct pattern of responses 

Pain aggression model

aggression conditioned through pairing neutral stimulus w painful stimulus

pain → aggression

pain + NS

CS → aggression

if pain elicits aggressive behaviour, classical conditioning can pair a neutral stimulus w pain so that conditioned stimulus elicits aggression 

Impulsive aggression

reacts aggressively without thinking; as a result of classical conditions